Document 060QVB8z9GbYx8Gm8djX8yb6V

"f .' Mi - -J-//36/ RISK REDUCTION MONOGRAPH NO. 1: LEAD Background and National Experience with Reducing Risk N 27033 ,\ Environment Directorate i : ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT .' S Paris 1903 i' ; ni>-Qo-~ ntn " SLOl -DUPMOOOe^^, III I: ; Environment Monograph NO. 65, Risk Reduction Monograph NO. 1: LEAD mrrr w iw s **j w i DUP0400064B4 GENERAL DISTRIBUTION GCDE/GD(93)67 RISK REDUCTION MONOGRAPH NO. 1 T.Ban BACKGROUND AND NATIONAL EXPERIENCE WITH REDUCING RISK ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Paris 1993 00:5576 GRAPHS, TABLES AND FACSIMILES NOT AVAILABLE IN ELECTRONIC FORM DUP040006495 Risk Reduction Monograph No. 1: LEAD - Background and National Experience with Reducing Risk is the first in a planned series of OECD documents on risk reduction activities for specific chemicals or groups of chemicals. These Monographs will normally include sections on: the commercial life cycle, including releases from the major point sources and categories of diffuse sources; the environmental life cycle, including qualitative and quantitative health and environmental exposure determinations and estimations; linkages between sources and targets; risk reduction and control measures and their cost/effectiveness; and conclusions that can be drawn regarding the effectiveness of risk reduction measures, the identification of major exposures that need to be addressed in order to contribute to the reduction of risk, and critical information gaps. The Risk Reduction Monographs are part of the OECD Environment Monograph Series. This series is designed to make available to a wide readership selected technical reports on the risk reduction of chemicals prepared under the OECD Chemicals Programme. The Environment Poiicy Committee recommended that this report be made public under the authority of the Secretary-General, who subsequently agreed. Copies of this Monograph on a limited basis can be forwarded on request. Contact: OECD Environment Directorate Environmental Health and Safety Division 2, rue Andr6 Pascal 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France Telefax: 45.24.16.75. Copyright OECD 1993 DUP040006496 FIGURES Chapter 1: Figure 1 World Mine Production 1990 World Lead Metal Production 1990 Figure 2 Lead Price (Real $ 1991) 1970-1991 Figure 3 World Lead Metal Production 1970-1991 Figure 4 World Demand for Lead 1970,1990 Figure 5 OECD Demand by End Use Category 1970,1990 Figure 6 Battery Demand 1970*1990 Figure 7 Gasoline Additive Demand 1970-1990 Figures 8, 9 Rolled and Extruded Product Demand 1970-1990 Figures 10, 11 Alloy Demand 1970-1990 Figures 12,13 Pigment and Compound Demand 1970-1990 Figure 14 Cable Sheathing Demand 1970-1990 Figure 15 Shot and Ammunition Demand 1970-1990 Figure 16 Miscellaneous Demand 1970-1990 Figure 17 Lead Prices and Stocks 1070-1991 Chapter 2: Figure 18 Life Cycle of Lead and Release into Environmental Media Chapter 3: Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Pathways of Human Exposure Lead Concentrations in Snow and ice Australia: Lead Emission Estimates Australia: Estimated Dietary Intake of Lead 4 DUP040006497 :0P GWTENt> page Forsword . ... , .,,** .*,.., . . . ............ 9 Executive Summary....... ............................................... ...................................... .......... - \%y Expos# de synthfese ............................ ........................................................................ .... 25 Chapter 1 Lead Production, Use and Disposal------- -.............. ................................ 41 , 1.1 Production .............. .. ...................................................... .. 41 1.2 Processing and technology .......................... ,........... .. 44 1.3 Demand and end uses ................... ................................ .. 46 1A World markets and trade ................ ........................... ........................... 58 1,5 Disposal {recycling, incineration, landfill)....................... ............. ............. 58 Chapter 2 Environmental Fate, Transport and Occurrence -------------- 67 2.1 Sources of lead in the environment ......................... ,..............................67 2.2 Lead in the atmosphere ............................................................. .. 68 2.3 Lead in water ................ ............. ........................... ................................... 73 2.4 Lead in soil ............................................................................. .......................75 2.5 Lead in dust------------------ ----------------------------- - 81 Chapter 3 Linkages to Exposure ....................................................... 87 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................... ................ 87 3.2 Pathways of human exposure ................ ......................................................87 3.3 Global baseline data ................................ .................... ............................. 91 3.4 Country data ........................................,.............. ............................. ...... 93 Chapter 4 National Positions on Current Risks from Lead ......................... 139 Chapter 5 Mechanisms for Risk Reduction ......................................... 177 Chapter 6 Summary and Considerations .......................................... .275 3 DUP040006498 nvr--mrr^n> Figure 49 Figure 50 .Flgyta.SI Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure .54 Figure 55 Figure 56 Figures? Figure 58 United Kingdom: Average Blood Lead Levels United Kingdom: Lead Intake from Food United States: Lead in Air United States: Emissions of Lead United States: Lead Intake from Food United States: Types qf Food Cans Shipped United States: Lead in Municipal Solid Waste United States: Average Blood Lead Levels United States: Spatter Plot of Blood Lead Values V United States: Lead Used in Gasoline Production 6 DUP040006499 Figure 23 Figure 2:4 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 3Q figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Figure 44 Figure 45 Figure 46 Figure 47 Figure 48 Australia: Blood Lead Levels (Workers) Austria: Lead Emissions Austria: Dietary Lead Intake Austria: Blood Lead Levels Belgium: Concentration of Lead in Air Belgium: Average Blood Lead Levels Canada: Concentration of Lead in Air Canada: Estimated Lead Emissions by Sector Canada: Average Blood Lead Levels (Children) Germany: Lead in Air (Rural Areas) Germany: Lead in River Sediments Germany: Bipod Lead Levels New Zealand: Leaded Gasoline Consumption (Christchurch) New Zealand: Average Blood Lead Levels (Christchurch) Norway: Discharges of Lead to the Environment Norway: Lead Deposition from Air Sweden: Airborne Lead Sweden: Effluents of Lead to Water Sweden: Average Blood Lead Levels (Population) Sweden: Average Blood Lead Levels (Occupational) Switzerland: Lead Release into the Environment Switzerland: Gasoline Consumption Switzerland: Average Blood Lead Levels United Kingdom: Lead Entering the North Sea United Kingdom.: Lead in Air (Urban Sites) United Kingdom: Lead in Air (Rural Sites) S DUP040006500 TABLES Chapter 1: Table 1.1 Chapter 2: Table 2.1 Table 2,2 Table 2.3 Table 2,4 Chapter 5: Table 5,1 Battery Recycling Rates in Some OECD Countries y' Lead Concentrations Estimated as Natural in the United States Estimated Worldwide Anthropogenic Emissions of Lead to the Atmosphere 1983 Worldwide Emissions of Lead into Soils 1983 Metal Concentrations in Surface Soils Adjacent to an 'Industrial Smelting Complex Areas in which Member Countries Have Developed Environmental Policies for Lead 7 DUP040006501 classification en termes de danger et/ou ieur dfestinatidn (c'est-a-dire recyclage. Elimination finale, commerce international). Les materiaux contenant du plomb qui peuvent etre recycles vont des dechets des industries et de la consommation aux resides d'actions curatives ou antipollution. Les dechets de produits de consommation reprEsentent plus de 80 pour cent des dechets destines au recyclage, parmi lesquels les piles peuvent reprEsenter jusqu'a 90 pour cent pour une annEe donnEe. Dans de nombreux pays, les taux de recyclage des piles sont eleves, depassant parfdis 90 pour cent. Quoiqu'if en solt, it est apparu que le mailion le plus faible dans la chaTne du recyclage demeure d'ordinaire le consommateur qui conserve ou qui jette une pile usee piutot que de la relourrjer; pour qu'elle soit recycle. Dans un certain nombre de pays, les pouvoirs publics et I'industrieks'efforcent ensemble d'intensifier le recyclage en mettent I'accent sur le cycle de vie ,< des piles et 'batteries et en encourageant les consommateurr a rendre ceiles qui sont usagEes. Lorsque les dechets industrials soiides et les dechets de produits de consommation contenant dpi plomb ne sont pas recycles ou rEutiiises, its sont gEneralement envoyes dans des decharges pour tre EliminEs ou bien ils sont incineres. La composition et le volume des dechets destines a! lieliimination finale, ainsi que les mEthodes utiiisees, varient suivant !es pays et les regions en1 function de facteurs tels que les modes d'utiiisation finale, les taux de recyclage et la densite de: population. D'apres les estimations, dans certains pays, ce sont les piles et les produits de consommation Electroniques qui repr6sentent I'essentiel du plomb present dans les dechets managers soiides. Dans d'autres pays, c'est le plomb des soudures des boites de conserve qui a ete reconhu^comme 4tant la principale source de plomb dans les dechets managers. On a remarque que le volume de plomb diminue dans les residus urbains de certains pays. Dos etudes cnt, en outre, montre que les problEmes d'hygiene sont minimes lorsque les decharges sont correctement.gerees et que le ruisseliement et la lixiviation y sont surveilles, et qu'il est possible de maTtrispr ies' Emissions de plomb a partir des incinerateurs, grace a une technology adequate dont I,effi6aciteipeut atteindre ou depasser 99 pour cent. Si I'on peut pratiquement supprimer la dispersion dab's J'atmosphSre du plomb provenant. de I'incin^ration, celul qui est piEge par les disposes, de lUtte contre les emissions ou qui reste dans les cendres doit etre correctement elimine, d'ordin'aire en decharge. 2n Le devenir du plomb dans I'environnement: transport et localisation Les activites humaines extraient le plomb de la croGte terrestre oO il est reiativement immobile et le transferee dans les divers compartiments de I'environnement Les possibilites d'exposition de I'homme et des ecosystemes s'en trouvent considerablement accrues. ^industrialisation a iargement accelere le transport du plomb aux voies d'exposition de I'etre humain et de I'environnement. Hommes et Ecosystemes peuvent Etre substantiejiement exposes au plomb dans tous les compartiments de i'environnement. D'apres les estimations, la quantity de plomb emise chaque annEe dans I'atmosphGre du fait d'activites humaines a diminue de 30 pour cent par rapport aux 332 350 tonnes EvaluEes en 1983. On peut estimer que les sources des emissions de piomb dans I'atmosphere se repartissent entre deux grandes categories : sources mobiles (vehicules automobiles consommant des carburants contenant du plomb) et sources fixes (raffinage, fabrication et incineration). Les emissions atmosphEriques, des fonderies, des installations de traitement et des incinerateurs de 27 DUP040006502 dechets soiides sont, soil des rejets de sources ponctuelles a partir des cheminges, soil des rejets fugaces associgs au stockage, au traitement ou k la manutention des matriaux. Des concentrations de plomb allant de 0,5 ng/m3 jusqu'a 10 ng/m3 ont et enregistrees dans Patmosphere urbaine de certains pays de I'OCDE au coeur des zones urbaines a forte circulation. Toutefois, les limitations des niveaux de plomb dans i'essence decidees dans de nomfcsreux pays se sont traduites par une diminution sensible des quantits 6mises dans i'atmosphere par les vehicules moteur. Les concentrations atmosphgriques au vcisinage des sources ponctuelles sont encore souvent 6leves. Le plomb s'accumule dans les sols et dans les sediments. On estime que la totaiife de ia charge de plomb dans les sols du fait des diverses activites humaines dans ie moods entier a baisse par rapport aux quantity 6values en 1983 -- 479 000 6 1 113 000 tonnes par an - a ia suite de ia diminution des emissions de plomb dans ('atmosphere. Les d<p6ts de plomb d'origine atrrcospherique constituent urte source majeure de contamination des sols et des sediments. La concentration du plomb dans les sols proches des routes & grande circulation depend de la densite de la circulation, des conditions metoro!ogiques locales, de la vegetation et de la iopographie. Les concentrations de plomb dcroissent au fur et k mesure que! on s'eloigne de ia route et que i'on s'enfonce dans leteol. Les concentrations de plomb associges a des sources fixes dependent de la cadehce des grftissicns k partir de la source, de !a dispersion et du ,taux de retombee. En ggngral, !a cbncdritfalibn de plomb dans le sol diminue de fagon expcnentielle sous le vent d'une source ponctuelle. Les peintures k usage domestique contenant du plomb peuvent contribuer substantiellement aux concentrations en plomb des poussieres menageres cu du sol pres des habitations. Les plumbs utilises pour le tir et pour la peche apportent de grandes quantites de plomb dans ids sols et dans les sediments. Le plomb a tendance a eire Immobilise par la fraction organique du so! et y reste fixe. II a ete avance que le plomb ainsi immobilise pouvait 6tre libere par des baisses de pH des precipitations. Toutefois, on ne dispose pas encore de preuves confirmant que !les pluies acides influencent la chimie et le transport du plomb dans les sols. Le plomb est un constituent naturel, en quantite negligeable d'ordinaire, des eaux de surface et des -eaux siduterraines. On estime, comme pour (e plomb dans les sols, que I'apport total de plomb j!;aux cosystemes aquatiques dans ie monde entier a diminu par rapport aux valeurs evaiubes en 1983 qui se situaient entre 97 000 et 180 000 tonnes par an, en raisen de ia diminution I'des emissions atffiosphgriques de plomb. Le plomb apporte aux 6cosystemes aquatiques peOt'provenir de sources telles que dechets industries, effluents issus des precedes d extraction I miniOre.^de. fusion, de raffinage etde transformation, epandaga deboues depuration et rstomb^slfatmospheriques. La plupart du plomb atteignant les eaux de surface est faciiement absorb^dabs' ids' sediments cu ii_forme des complexes avec les matieres organiques. Comme ii est relativetjh^nf rpe'u rhbbile dans I'eau, ie plomb a tendance s'accumuier ia oij ii est rejele (par example, pres des sources ponctuelles). 3. Relations avec ^exposition inhalation et ingestion (d'eaux, d'aliments, de peinture, de terra ei/ou de poussieres) sont ies principals voies de i'expositron humaine au plomb. Ii est difficile d'evaluer I'impodance relative de chaque source. Cette importance variera suivant ia situation geographlque, le ciimat et les phenomen.es geochimiques locaux. De fa?on similaire, I'intensite de ('exposition subie par un imdividu peut varier en fonctiori de Page, du sexe, du metier, du statut socio-gconomique, du regime aiimentaire, et des pratiques culturelles. Oh estime, de plus, que la quantite de plomb 28 DUP040006503 DE SYMTHESE Le present document sur la reduction des risques lids au piomb a pour principal objectif de : rsumer ies informations relatives aux rejets de piomb dans i'environnement, a I'exposition qui s'ensuit pour la sant humaine et pour la salubrite de i'environnement, ainsi qu'a la fagon dont Ies pays Membres de I'OCDE et Ies pays jouissant du statut d'observateur auprs de ['Organisation pergoivent Ies risques associs k I'exposition au piomb; de ddcrire Ies dispositions que ces pays et ies industries cqncemSes ont prises otf envisagent de prendre afin de rgduire ies risques assoctes & ('exposition au piomb ; et d'identifier ies avantages, en termes de protection de la sante humaine et de I'environnement, susceptibtes de dcou!er de ces mesures, pour autant que 1'on dispose d'informations Ies concernant. Ce document s'inspire d'informations fournies de 1990 k 1992 et doit tre consider# comme un "instaritane" des reflexions les plus recentes et des actiyites de cette priode. II peut aider a ^valuer I'efficacitS des strategies nationales de reduction des risques lies au piomb en identsfiant ies tendances communes iors de I'Stablissementde entires, de normes ou de poiifiques nationales. II indique egalementlesdomaines dans iesquets des actions internationaies concertees se jystifieraient et seraient possibles. Les activites visant k reduire ies risques associes au piomb devraient normalement continuer d'alimenter des fiux d'informations et de technologies entre pays Membres, et encourager ['acquisition et f'echange de connaissances relatives a ia nature et a I'efficacite de mesures prises pour faire face aux risques inaccepiables que pose i'exposition au piomb. Resume des differents chapitres 1. Production, utilisation et elimination Le piomb est un element present k I'etat nature! dans la croQte terrestre. Son extraction remonterait jusqu'a 5 000 ans avartt Jesus Christ. Facile a fagonner et hautement apprecie pour sa maiieabilite et sa ductilite, le piomb etait utilise autrefois pour fabriquer des vernis de poterie, des objets d'art, des pieces de monnaie et des canalisations d'eau. Aujourd'hui, plus de 50 pays produisent du piomb k partir de minerals et de concentres et/ou par recyclage. En 1990, la production mondiale de piomb metal a atteint 5 659 millions de tonnes d'une vaieur dpassant 4,6 milliards de dollars des Etats Unis, dont un peu plus de ia moitie provenait de materiaux recycles, Cette annee ia, ies pays de f'OODE ont realise 50 pour cent de la production mondiaie de minerals et de concentres nontenant du piomb et environ 34 pour cent de la production mondiaie du piomb metal. 25 Le plomb primaire obtenu par extraction est souvent un sous-produit ou un coproduit de Sexploitation d'autres mineral's comme ceux de zinc, d'argent, de cuivre et de cadmium. En 1989, 155 mines reparties dans 35 pays ont produit 2,21 millions de tonnes de plomb sous forme de concentres, s'accompagnant d'une coproduction (de cuivre, de zinc et d'argent, par exemple), d'une valeur depassant les 9 milliards de dollars des Etats Unis. En outre, le p'omb figure parm: les metaux non ferreux les plus recycles au monde. La production ceoonriaire {h osn:r do maVarioux recycles) augments reguiierement. Eli adepasse ia production prinaire pour la premiere f-Js on 1989. Cette progression iliustre les conditions econcivvcMcc fa"orat-kf; acsociee.*: au recycle go du plomb, et aussi ie fait qu le pldmb recycle conserve ses propri6er. physiques et chirniquos. Comme ce metal est utilise dans le monde entier, le plomb do rebut so', dovenu une ressourop iaoiiement renouvelable k iaquelie ont acc'es les pays depou-vus de mines de plomb. Depute 197Ci, la demand mondiale de plomb, dont les proprietes chimiques, lectriques et physiques sent ur.-ques, a augments de 25 pour cent pour atteindre un niveau record de 5 627 millions: de tomes sn 1990. Les paysde I'OCDE ont represents 65 pour cent de la demande mondial en 1 "90 aiore one It part des pays d'Europe central et orientate eiait de 21 pour cent. L'Asie est msintons'it la troisibnfi grande region consommatrice de plomb, reprSsentant 9 pour cent de Is demande mondial, et ses besoins sont ceux qui augmentent le plus vite. L? demand*; en plomb des pays de I'OCDE ont augments de 10 pour cent entre 1970 et 1990. C'r-ni is clour nec piles et batteries qui a enregistre la plus forte croissance. Ce secteur represser fsi*ec. pci v ".hi fa te oomande en 1990. Pendant la meme period, Ses inquietudes, tant pour la sort* quo pour IVrerennement, ont ete largement responsables du recul de I'utilisation du plomb c'tnc iVser.te, lee boitss de conserve soudees, les soudures el tuyauteries des reseaux d'eau pore 'I - d ir* les elements utilises dans les peintures a usage dorhestique. Le declin de la plupart d'tutrns usages. comme ie gainage de cables, correspond a une Evolution de ia technologic at doc bcro:ns surar/: les iois du marche pour des produits plus legers, plus efficaces, et d'un prix'plus competitif. On est en train de mettre au point de nouvelles applications pour ie plomb et ses composes dans la micro-eiectronique, les supraconducteurs, I'asphalte, les. materiaux para-sismiqiies, la protection centre le radon et pour le stockage permanent, ou avec possibility de reprise, des debtiets nuciSaires, pour n'en citer que quelques-unes. L'industrie a admis que i'adoption de nbuy^aux produits devait s'accompagner d'analyses de risques, et qu'il etait necessaire, ie cas ebheant, de prevoir des modaiites de recyclage et de reutilisation. Les prix du plomb s'eiablissent au jour ie jour sur ia base des mecanismes du marche internatidnal, puisque ce metal faitl'objet d'echanges dans le monde entier. Au niveau des regions, i'Eurcpe St ie Japo;n sont cedes qui important le plus de concentres de plomb et i'Europe est celle qui import tes'jptesl griandes quantiles de ilngots de plomb et de plomb raffin. L'Australie, le Canada et Ife PSrou ^ont les principaux foumisseurs, aussi bien de concentres de plomb que de plomb metal. Le Mexicjue rsste un exportateur important de piomb raffine. Le piomb peut etre libere nalurellement dans I'environnement {du fait, par exemple d'erosion, de la croute terrestre, du volcanisme) ou II peut provenir de sources liees k I'activite humaine comme i'iriBustrie, la production d'energie (combustion de charbon et de pdtrole), et de I'utilisation et de {'elimination de produits de consommation. Les dechets industrials (emissions, effluents et dechets sblidesj font souvent I'objet de r6glementations dans les pays de I'OCDE. Les dechets des produits de consommation contenant du piomb peuvent etre reglementes, seion leur 26 DUP040006505 DUP040006506 presented must be viewed as a qualitative overview that is likely to be incomplete in some areas. Similarly, risk reduction measures implemented by the industry show evidence of geographic variation that is reflective of regional differences in the perception of relative risk associated with lead exposure. The nature and extent of risk reduction activity by industry in individual countries is thus variable. 6. Summary and Considerations Almost all OECD countries have introduced regulatory or non-regulatory measures id reduce unreasonable human and ecosystem risks from exposure to lead. The risk assessments and risk characterizations that have led countries to take actions have a national character. Although some countries have taken the same number of measures, no two countries have adopted the same set of risk reduction measures (i.e. initiatives refating to environmental media, ;; industrial or municipal releases, products, occupational exposures, etc.}. Blood lead sampling is one of the methods most widely used to assess human risk from exposure to lead. Approximately 30 per cent of OECD countries have reported blood lead ' monitoring data for the general population and/or segments of the population at greatest risk. These countries have reduced average blood lead levels for the general population to below 10 pg/dl by introducing either a few measures or a considerable number of initiatives. Data for those Member countries that monitor lead in various media also indicate that the average concentrations of lead in environmental media have declined to below national levels of concern. However, some countries have identified releases of (ead from point sources and/or the long-range transport of lead in air as concerns. Others have indicated that, given the recent progress in reducing lead in air, there are more significant domestic concerns such as lead in imported canned foody lead in drinking water (especially for critical groups such as bottle-fed infants], or lead in dust and chips irom deteriorating old household paint. it is suggested that when considering risk reduction strategies for lead. Member countries not already doing so may wish to undertake environmental arid blood lead sampling to identify populations at highest risk and to evaluate the extent of lead exposure in their general population. Countries may also want to draw on experiences described in the document when developing regulatory and non-regulatory measures to reduce unreasonable risks from exposure. These measures may include: regulations and standards (for example, on iead in food packaging, lead in gasoline, smelter emissions) aimed at reducing ongoing releases of iead to air, water, soil, dust anc the workplace; implementation of cleaner technology (for example, substitution, process modification's}, effective recollection and recovery systems, or environmentally acceptable waste treatment; abatement activities to reduce risks frtim exposure to historical sources of release (for example, deteriorating paint, piping; ih potabie water systems); and voluntary industry product stewardship programmes such as the industry phaseout in some countries of high-risk applications (for example, lead in soldered food cans or household paints). in addition, consideration should be given to reviewing progress every few years with lead risk reduction slrategie's. This could include the collection of Member countries' environmental and blood lead monitoringfdata, as welt as 'of new information on their regulations, criteria, standards or national policies regarding exposure to lead. 23 DUP040006507 for the use and disposal of sewage sludge containing lead that would allow a maximum concentration of lead in sludge of 300 mg/kg and cumulative pollutant loading for lead in the soil of 300 kg/ha. In the US, certain lead-containing wastes are specifically listed as hazardous. These wastes must be managed by, a permitted treatment, storage or disposal facility. The federal and state governments also regulate the use of lead paints and surface coatings used in toys, children's products and household furniture. The canning industry has undertaken a voluntary phase-out of the use of lead in food cans. The-US government also regulales the lead content of ceramic glazes, food, wine and pesticides. A number of states have adopted legislation to limit the levels of lead used in packaging materials. A large recycling effort is ongoing in the US to deal with most lead-acid batteries (it is1 likely that many small consumer batteries may not be recycled). Recent studies indicate that more than 95 per cent of all such batteries are recycled. The current Permissible Exposure Limit for air concentrations of lead in the workplace is 5,0 pg/m3. Bi'dod level monitoring is triggered by an air lead concentration above 30 fjg/m3. The medical removal blood lead concentration in the workplace, which became effective in 1983, is 50 pg/dl for three consecutive checks and 60 pg/dl for any one check. A worker is permitted to return to that workplace when his blood lead level fails below 40 pg/dl. Nordic Countries: The Nordic countries have undertaken a number of joint initiatives towards protecting the environment. Denmark, Sweden and Norway have signed the Ministerial Declaration of the Third International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea. This declaration states that the emissions of lead (and other micropollutants) shall within 1995 bp reduced by 70 per cent compared to the level in 1985. Denmark, Finland and Sweden have, through the Baltic Marine Environment Commission (HelCom), adopted the goal of reducing lead emissions by 50 per cent within 1995, using 1987 as a reference year. The Nordic Working Group for the Chemicals Group of the Nordic Council of Ministers has prepared a draft report describing Nordic experiences regarding the technological possibilities for reducing the use of lead. The long-term goal for the Nordic countries is to completely eliminate the intentional use of lead in products and to minimize the amount of lead discharged to the environment. The strategy to reach this goal includes, in preferential order: cleaner technology (substitution and process modifications); effective recoiiection and recovery systems; and environmentally acceptable waste treatment. European Community: Th'e European Community has issued directives regulating lead in products, and across different environmental media and environmental sources. It is important to note that a directive is a legislative action addressed to Member States. It may either contain very specific information or be narrative in nature. A directive often sets a deadline for adoption by Member States into their own laws; typically, ,however, a directive will contain specific information and wiil set a deadline on the order of three years. If a Member State fails to adopt the directive into law within the specified amount of time, then action may be taken against that Member in the European Courts. Beginning in 1989, the EC prohibited tne use cf lead carbonates and lead sulphates in paints intended for all purposes other than preservation work. Also in 1987, the EG limited lead levels in gasoline in a directive which sets the maximum permitted lead compound level of leaded gas at 0.15 g/i and defines unleaded gasoline as that 21 DUP040006508 containing less than 0.013 g/t of lead. In 1993, the EC prohibited the use of lead capsules for overcorking wine bottles. All sources of drinking water should have a maximum allowable lead concentration of 0.05 mg/1. In 1989, standards were established for sewage sludge used in agricultural application. The lead concentration limit for soils with pH levels ranging from 6-7 is 50300 mg/kg dry matter, while the limit in sewage sludge is 75-1200 mg/kg and the annual limit of sewage siudge applied to agriculture is 15 kg/ha (based on a. ten-year average). The FO hes 'el feed pi? r da*ds to limit the exposure of livestock to lead. As of 1988, the man-etlng rt cosmetic p'"ducts coniairng lead was prohibited.. Mo more than 20 mg/kg lead may be- contained in colour:nt n tetters, and not more1 than 10 mg/kg lead in antioxidants and erivtinfiers used fer focd. The maximum leaching rate for ceramic articles that can be filled is 4 mg/S and for ceramic cookware 1.5 mg/I. Beginning, in 1988, paints, varnishes, printing inks and similar products that have r ^ : and label)-. ~r"T ,g to ,EC standards, in 1986, the EC established concentration limits for air of Ol'ljs m^/m3 and blood lead of 70 pg/dl, and action levels for air of 40 pg/m3 and blood iead of 40 pg/dl. Indus' ry: The iniernaiional non-ferrous metals industry has effected a variety of initiatives which cer, be c o t -kissed lead "risk reduction" measures. Summaries of these activities are prc'iood in this section. These initiatives generally fail into one of several categories, as Wio'-c: 1) cringes in processing technology and/or emission controls; 2) implementation of medical surveillance and occupational hygiene programmes for expereo < rkcic; ?> support of research to validate the effectiveness of existing occuccuonaf and genera! population exposure limits and1 develop new monitoring procedures for ensur.r.g human and environmental health; and 4) implementation of product cltv'crdshlp programmes to inform downstream users of lead of the precautions which should beiexercised so as to protect the health of employees and consumers. Occupational standards for exposure to lead vary among OECD countries. For example, OECD countries hs^e established maximum occupational exposure limits for iead in-blood ranging bet*,'sen 40 anri 80 py/di. Standards for occupational exposure to airborne iead also -'ary among OECD countries, with 50, 100 and 150 pg/m3 ail being specified in nations' regulations or legislation. Engineering controls backed by personal hygiene and other prntoi'tr/o omemnmes are employed by lead producing and consuming industries to minimize worker censure. In areas where exposure limits cannot otherwise be met, pec-onm raopi.-etors ars employed! Correlations between lead in air and lead in blood are generally r oot, vitii good personal );iygiene widely regarded as the most significant factor in limning e.xcsure. ~hio factor aiso serves to minimize the transport of lead particles into the home. 1 he European Federation of Capsule Manufacturers,, (EUCAPA) agreed in June 19&0 io stop the production,dt lead-containing capsules for overcorking wine bottles. The information.presented in this overview was, in large part, collected via a questionnaire administered te" the international industry by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization in early 1992. i Respondents to the questionnaire'.included corporations whose ijelad production capacities cqmprise a significant proportion of both annua! global production andproduction in ECD ,'Member countries. Responses to this questionnaire were not received from all lead-producing industries. As a result, the information 22 DUP04000650S 600 mg/kg, the limit value allowable in soil is 300 mg/kg, and the maximum cumulative loading is 125 kg/ha. Mew Zealand has proposed a national ambient air quality guideline of 1.0 ng/m3 for an average time of three-month moving average. The workplace exposure standard for lead in air is 0.15 mg/m3. Sweden: In 1991, the Swedish Government decided that measures should be carried out in order to phase out the use of lead on a voluntary basis, and in the long run to ensure its cessation. White lead compounds are not used in paints; however, some lead is used in paint as pigments, drying agents and rust-proofing agents. Sweden limits the lead content in gasoline at 0.15 g/1 for leaded and 0.013 g/i for unleaded products, and recently a ban has been proposed on the manufacture and import of leaded gasolinb from 1 July 1994. Water.wiih lead concentrations ,of less than 0.01 mg/I is deemed suitable for use as drinking water. Air and water standards are set on a case-by-case basis during the, facility licensing process. Food tolerance levels have recently been lowered to 0.30.5 mg/kg for most canned food, and i'to between 0.02-0.5 mg/kg for various, foodstuffs {higher values for spices, etc.). Ceramic ware, intended for handling food and beverages, is prohibited for sale if more than 3 mg/llead is leached out during a standardized acetic acid leaching \ test. Sweden has instituted an aggressive recycling programme for batteries, supported in.'large part by taxes on batteries. Hie maximum allowable dir lead concentration in the workplace is 0.1oi mg/m3 (total) and 0.05 mg/m3 (respirable). Switzerland: The use of lead and Ite- compounds r prohibited :n water paints and non- vw.shsbte diste.nperr. uc^b fer '.fite.nor p._ ntr'eri*. The i -ad content ci oar-c.'-ne to limited to G.if, c/| I'loadtd, o.o' B g-'l fuel-.ndebj. ' id 0 56 o/i in Piro'sff petrel. The permissible lead concentration in dnrk.nr- water is 0.C5 rrr/',. S*-iizr.rlgnd ha: set a nene*el emission standard for combustem - ih a ms*" f!c groats' than 25 9V ai 5 nn/m\ For municipal V'acto- ncinbraten:, the s of lead ar.a zinc, inciud ng compounds em.J-jd into the alnocphere, it no* allowed to exceed 1 mg/m3. The maximum toteracle lead coroer-trsuon in ai' l' irpended c-olidr) is limited te 1 jjg/rr: the maximum tolerable (leper,ilien at 100 ng/nr per day. -/.'asie effluent: rnuci have s lead concentration o' less tr.an (\5 mr'l. Th^ q-irliiy catena v.r sunaoe -r flc'"'-* and imrounued river water i:. ct 0.05 mg/1. The u-e of 'evay-*- sludge and compost is prchifcited if their tead cciT-n: exceeds 500 rr.g/hg o* 120 rr.n'I-g respectively. The maximum stowable air Pc 1 r'or'rritatiPi ri Icr^icO 1 mg/rrr f.imfi weigheo F^o-sr-c<v-r eighthours) for teart'and,tejad cbmpobnds ((except alkyl compounds), and 0.075/m3 fortetramethyl and tetraethyl lead. United Kingdom: The United Kingdom has implemented legislation concerning lead paint thaii: presents the use of lead carbonates and lead sulphates in paint. Under these rules; lead carbonates, and sulphates may only be used in paint for certain historic buildings and1 for ail preservation. The maximum allowable concentration of lead in gasoline is oil 5 g/1,. Unleaded gasoline has a maximum allowable concentration of 0.013 g/1. Rules governing the maximum concentration of lead in drinking water are set at 50 jxg/l. Recently regulations have been proposed to prohibit the use of certain lead solders in domestic water supply installations. A maximum permissible concentration tor lead in soils of 300 mg/kg dry solids after the application of sewage sludge has been established. The ambient air quality standard for lead is 2.0 jig/m? (mean annual concentration). The UK regulates air point sources and other lead works using the best practicable means. 19 DUP040006S10 Industrial sources must meet an allowable lead concentration of 0.002 g/m3. Total particulate emissions cannot exceed 0.1 g/m3. Permissible lead concentrations in waste water effluent vary by industry and plant location. The typical range of permissible concentrations is 1.0-5.0 mg/I. The UK lias established quslitv and standards for a rsppe of consumer products, such sr a general i.'mir for ie?d ir. focJ of 1.0 rrr/kg with lever limits for special types of food such s' baby feed <0.?. mc/kg). As- of l?f'3, ceramic wair;* have been subject to regulation. Industry was given five years to meet ma> ;rr urn lead concentrations of C.8 mg/dr,ii'f.rt|ah'-a:e1^.f rr.y/lfcr email hcilr/.`,-,*'crir fitcs than three litres) and 1.5 mg/I tor hcliew-wsre greater than three ik-es. The UK e--.ee restrict- the use of lead-based oeir.te ir. consumer products. AifliOum lucre c-m nc rules go-'srning the disposal of lead batteries wiiir.n the UK, there am very hig.-j recycling rare? text', eding 90 per cent) for lead-acid batteries used in buildings and automobiles. The maximum allowable, concentration of lead in the workplace is 0.15 mg/m3 (eight-hour TWA),1 blood lead concentration of 701'c-'dl ir-r men and 40 pg/di for women. For the general'population; the government advice published in 1982 recommended taking steps to reduce exposure if blood lead level exceed 25 pg/di. United Stater.: The United hr-s rcc*.r:ctPrJ or banned the use of several products ccntrr.ing i-sd vlisrr ri-.l'c from ih<r,r preduej? are high and where substitutes for lead or lesc-basuo product;: are ilublc. The Cer.lors for Disease Control (CDC) lowered the childhood blood ir.ar. ccncentredor. cf concern to 10 jxg/df in 1991. Earlier, the EPA had lowered the level of concern c IGpg/dl ("lO-ISsand possibly lower") in 1986. The Agency for Tc/:o Subciahc? Choate Registry /ATSDR) identified the same level o t cohcern irithe"H988 Report to Corigress on childhood lead poisoning. One of/the highest-risk sources of lead poisoning for children in the United States is leadbased paint. The federal government has set a1 standard for lead in residential paint of 0.06 per bent, Which effectively bansHljead use in residential paint, in 1992, the Residential Lead-fcSasedlPaint Hazard Reduciion'Aci of 1992 was enacted (Title X). This law provides the framework for a national approach to reduce hazards from lead-based paint exposure, piiimaiiiiy in [housing. The US restricts the amount of lead allowed per litre of leaded gas to 0.026 grams. Since 1988, ail new light-duty vehicles, trucks, motorcycles and heavy-duty gasoline engines must operate on unleaded gas (0.01 g/l). Starting in 1995, a total ban on leaded gasoline and lead gasoline additives wiii be in place for highway use. A new regulation of 1991 outlines the treatment requirement for drinking wafer that sets an "action level" of 15 pg/l measured" at the home source. A series of remediation steps are prescribed for household^ exceeding this level. Interim guidelines exist for abatement of lead-based paint in public housing. These guidelines recommend abatement at 1pg/cm2 paint of 0.5 per cent ,;lead by weight and clearance levels for lead in household dust of 200 pg/ft* for floors; S'OOJpg/fffor window sills and 800 pg/ft2 for window wells. The interim guidance for residential soil recornimends that clean-up should attain soil concentrations of between 500 and 1000 mg/kg. The US ambient air quality standard for lead is currently 1.5 pg/m3 (quarterly average). The most stringent standard for surface water quality is a maximum four-day average of 1.3 pg/l with k one-hour maximum average of 34 pg/l. The US has proposed regulations 20 DUP040006511 Finland: The use of white lead and lead sulphate has been prohibited in interior paints since 1929. Lead carbonates and lead sulphates may not be used in paints after 1 January 1993, except in paint intended for restoration and maintenance of works of art and historic buildings. The lead content of gasoline is limited to 0.013 g/1 (unleaded) and 0.15 g/i (leaded). Maximum values for emissions from facilities into air and water are set on a case-by-case basis during environmental permitting procedures. The maximum allowable concentration of lead in workplace air is 0.10 mg/m3 (time-weighted average over eight hours). The maximum allowable lead concentration in the blood of exposed workers is 50 pg/di. Food safety standard: the maximum lead content in fruits and vegetables is 0.3 mg/kg, in drinks 0.3 mg/kg, and in canned food 1.0 mg/kg. Maximum lead leaching i from ceramic ware that will come into contact with foodstuffs has been defined. The maximum lead level for drinking water is 0.05 mg/I. Franca: The. !e-.d content of gc-coline wor reduced to 0.15 g.-' ir. 1S91, and unleaded /less ilv.n 0.013 n/h gasoline hco boon c.ar.ted & tax rertuciic'i ',iich makes its retail pr.ee lowwr than that of leader on" France Jtes ariccted the FC !imit of 0.05 mg/i lead cor '.enl of surface wa*er to ha ur^-d ? ? s source for potcblr- va.er Tne average annual `mi ''Slue for amhicn' pt ror^en^arion of lord r. ? jjg/rr''. Standards exist for limiting U'l'j r.mrcionc fro-ti irdu^ino1 r.nr' otw facilities. Sewage r!udne ur^d in land application n jot pnf hs''t e lead conceniro^cn greater than 300 ppm. France limits the migration of le.:d frorr. c'.ram.c kitchen yt*npi>` iVo food, sllr/c only external soldering af canss and adf ere; tc ti.r .Januar* '093 prohibition load capeu'es for n'erc^mng'wine bottles ifrp~oed by lhe FC. Inr.nr.ri and r? pgmt cents'nine '*'hite lead compounds is prcRib.ted frern 1 F^b-umy Iff3, -ecyclinc is accomplished thijoju^ftj'iifdferitlu'y |i(a|ii|ligned'to'fi:iir fr-rrnar.y Regarding pent Alvt; i.'od corp'-und* ?re banned from sale and lead-based an-i c.rrrori''r. pa nf ir L<. nr. phe-eo cut. Vntr.nor: frr pa.n. v t\~ rr.r r: than 0.15 per cent 'sad ocn*. nt muct oe If'p-'led 1 ne na-nr j n center. cf le-.oed oa^oline has been restricted tc r.15 n/;.wncf 19/6, sne unleaded (lee- than 0.01 ^ g/l) gas bos been on the r.iarksl nir.ee 1 f|||*||:"''than 'S^-flFicenti:.'' '' Municipalities responsible for drinking water supply systems have to maintain a lead level of Idss than 40 pg/! at the mains connection. Lead service lines are no longer used, and old Mad systems are gradually being replaced. Copper pipes have to be soldered with lead-free alloys. Many German states have limited the lead concentration in the soil. For example, Northrhine-Westphalia has a limit of 20 mg/kg lead in the sand of children's pla^grpunds. The maximum tolerable lead concentration in air is limited to 2.0 pg/m3 (annual mean); the maximum deposition on soil to 0.25 mg/m2/day. Total metal emissions (including lead) from lead smeltprs are limited to 5 mg/m3. For direct discharges to water, limbs vary from 0.3 to 2.0 mg/1, according to the type of facility. The use of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes is legally prohibited if its lead content exceeds 900 mg/kg. In Germany, guide values {Richtwerte fur Schadstoffe in Lebensmitteln, ZEBS) have been established for most foodstuffs in a range of 0.03-2.0 mg/kg. In addition, a limit value for wink lias been introduced through the "wine regulation". For other foodsluffs guidelines for lead have been established. There is no use of soldered cans for food packaging. Lead Jcapsules for overcorking wine bottles are prohibited from 1993, in accordance with an iEC regulation. The recycling rate > for lead?acid batteries is reported to be above 95 pe'r cent, in the workplace, the maximum allowable air lead concentration is 17 DUP040006512 0.10 mg/m3 (eight-hour time-weighted average). The maximum allowable blood lead concentration for workers is 70 jig/d! for men and for women over 45, and 30 ng/dl for women under 45. Some physiologists and toxicologists recommend that the blood lead levels of adults should not exceed the concentration of 15 pg/dl, and that those of children and of women of childbearing age should not exceed 10 pg/dl. Japan: Japan does not prohibit the use of lead-based paints but does, through voluntary agreements, limit the exlenl to which lead-based paint is used (prohibited for toys, households). Lead-based paints are used primarily in construction, automobiles and electronic products. Lead gasoline is not manufactured, imported or used in Japan, the maximum permissible lead concentration in drinking water is 0.1 mg/i. Japan has set emission standards for smelters and other lead processing facilities at 10-30 mg/m3 depending on the facility. Waste water effluent must have a lead concentration of less than 1 mg/I. The administrative level for lead in the workplace is set at 0.1 mg/m3. , Merinj: Mexico has an eggresfh'e programme underway to reduce tetraethyl iead concentration m regular peroiirr. In 1599 unleaded gasoline (less than 0.01 g/l) was intrc.di.cerj. From i'o?S to 1952. an .3 per cent reduction to the lead content of gas took p'ace. :-cr drinking aier ti.e government established a lead level of 0.05 mg/I. Mexico ties also cel s'snderds for lead in focdeluffr. drugs and cosmetics. The maximum permirribie li-.vel cf iead in (tomato -<auce is 0.30 mg/kg and the maximum permissible level of lead in synthetic otgWiic dyes'added to food, beverages, drugs and cosmetics is 10 ppm. Mexico has eliminated the use of lead solder in welding of tin cans and has established a maximum permissible level of lead in surface paint of 90 mg/kg. Industries have agreed to eliminate the use of lead red oxide and lead-based carbonate from pigments, lacquer, enamel, paint and varnish on toys, pencils, school articles, printing inks, cosmetics, furniture and paints for interiors. Labelling on products containing lead is now required, in 'addition, a coalition of industry and artisans has agreed with government on maximum solubility levels for kiln-fired glazed pottery. Mexico has established a maximum permissible level of lead in the workplace of 150 [lg/rn3. A further reduction to 50 pg/m3 is being considered. Mew Zealand: White lead compounds cannot be manufactured, imported or used in paint, distemper, powder coatings, pigments, or antifoulant. The maximum permissible amount of iead in paint is 5|000 mg/kg; however, it is anticipated that this level will be reduced to 2500,mg/kg during 1993. The maximum permissible level of lead in petrol is 0.013 g/l (unleaded) ,and 0.46 g/l (leaded). A target date for elimination of iead in petrol has been set as,January 1996. Material used forwritmg, drawing, marking or painting that contains mofejithan 100 mglkg of iead is prohibited. The maximum permissible amount of iead in coating materials fdr toys is 5000 mg/kg. This level will be reduced to 2500 mg/kg in the Fbilirfiy Amendment of the Toxic Substances Regulations 1983. Accessible plastic material on1 toys is restricted to a maximum permissible amount of 250 mg lead/kg, Mew Zealand's drinking water guideline of 0.05 mg/i was established based on the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 1984. There is a proposal to review the standard in 1993 to align with the new WHO Guidelines. The maximum permissible amounts of iead in food range from 0.2 to 10 parts per miiiion, depending on the food product. Limits for lead in sewage sludge intended for application to arabie land were established in 199^. The maximum acceptable concentration of lead in dry sewage sludge is 18 DUP040006513 f monitoring of water supply systems to reduce the solubility of lead from lead-bearing service lines by controlling the pH; and f the development and implementation of regulations and technology for safe management of lead-bearing and other wastes destined for final disposal in landfills or incinerators. 4. National Positions on Current Risks from Lead I The Member country statements in this chapter essentially present the rationale for any actions the country has taken to address effects associated with environmental or human health exposures to lead. The risk assessments and risk characterizations that have led countries to take action have a national character. Countries develop positions on the need for risk reduction1; activities only after they have analysed the hazard and the significance of certain exposures and have factored in local social, economic and political considerations. These positions are usually arrived at after considerable debate on the numerous factors involved, and thus are not consistent across Member countries. This chapter also contains an internationally agreed assessment of the risks of lead from the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). The IPC3 assessment is taken directly from Chapters 1 and 9 of the recent Task Group-approved update of the Environmental Health Criteria Document on Lead, which will be published in late 1993 or early 1994. \ 5. Mechanisms for Risk Reduction '4 During the past few decades, most Member countries have taken steps to reduce unacceptable human and ecosystem risks from exposure to lead. Among the most successful of these measures have been restrictions on the use Of lead in certain products with significant exposure potential (for example, interior paint, gasoline). Accompanying these measures have been actions to establish criteria for acceptable levels of lead in environmental media, to limit industrial emissions of lead to the environment, to control occupational exposures, and to identify biologically based indices for determining populations at risk. Despite the success of many of these measures in reducing lead exposure, some Member countries continue to consider possible steps to reduce lead exposure further, especially in light of new evidence of potential health effects at levels previously believed to be safe. This chapter reviews risk management activities in Member countries. Included are discussions of steps taken in the past to reduce lead exposure, as well as current activities and potential future measures contemplated by certain countries, Country^specific risk management activities are summarized in Table 5.1. As shown in the table, the extent of these activities varies substantially among countries. The lead risk reduction activities of thirteen individual countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Nordic countries and the European Community are described in this chapter, followed by a summary of industry risk reduction activities. At the end of the chapter is a series of tables that summarize available data on lead risk reduction activities in all Member countries and Mexico. Repeated requests for information on lead risk reduction activities were made to ail Member countries in 1991 and 1992. Lack of information in this report 15 DUP040006S14 TOT on a particular country means either that no risk reduction activities have taken piace in that Member country, or that the Member country has declined to respond to the requests for information. The following is a brief summary of the information given in this chapter, apart from that presented in the tables: Australia: The Australian Government supports the production and uses of lead, consistent with the principles of ecologically sustainable development. Australia restricts the manufacture and use of iead-based household paint with a 0.25 per cent non-volatile content, and the lead content of gasoline is limited to levels ranging from 0.3 g/1 to 0.84 g/l, depending on location. Since 1 January 1986, all imported and domestic new cars have been required to operate on unleaded petrol (i.e. less than 0.013 g/i). This policy has resulted in unleaded petrol sales now approaching 50 per cent of total sales. A penetration level of about 80 per cent is forecast for the end of the decade. Australia also limits the emission concentration from stationary point sources to 1.5 pg/m3 over a three-month average. The concentration of lead in drinking water should not exceed 0.05 mg/i and the permissible levels for lead in specific foods are between 0.2 and 2.5 mg/kg, depending on the foodstuff. The lead content of ceramic glazes is restricted, as is the lead content of pencils, toys, crayons and artists' paints (to 0.01 per cent). Although there are no recycling regulations governing lead batteries, the industry reports that over 90 per cent of the lead used in batteries is recycled. Canada: The advertisement, importation and sale of paints containing lead are restricted. Lead is permitted in products (paints) for exterior use only and must be properly labelled. The Canadian paint industry voluntarily stopped using lead in household (interior and exterior) paint in 1991. in 1990 Canada prohibited the use of leaded gasoline (not to exceed 5 mg/i), except for use in critical equipment (not to exceed 26 mg/I). Canada currently allows a maximum of 10 pg/l of lead in drinking water and the plumbing code permits a maximum concentration of 0.2 per cent lead for solder and fluxes in contact with potable water. Lead concentrations allowed in food vary between 0.08 mg/kg for infant formula and 1.5 mg/kg for tomato products. National standards exist for ambient water quality (0.001 to 0.007 mg/i freshwater aquatic life), soil and air (emissions of particulates from secondary lead smelters from 0.023 to 0.046 g/m3). Lead is iimited to 0.5 per cent in coating materials applied to children's products. Canada recycles an estimated 93 per cent of lead-acid batteries. Lead batteries that are filled with acid are classified as hazardous and, as a result, their transportation and storage are regulated by federal and provincial requirements. Regulation of the handling of lead-bearing scrap is divided between federal and provincial authorities. Canada has undertaken extensive education and labelling programmes designed to increase community awareness of the hazards associated with lead exposure. Denmark: Danish lead risk reduction activities are aimed at phasing out the use of lead totally. Possible actions are regulation and voluntary agreements. The means could be substitution and, where this is not possible, improved recycling. International action is seen as a necessary means of eliminating lead use. 16 DUP040006515 If lead-containing industrial solid wastes and post-consumer products are not recycled or reused, they are generally sent to landfills for disposal or are incinerated. The composition and volume of wastes destined for final disposal, as well as management methods, vary according to country and region depending on factors such as end use patterns, recycling rates and population density. Some countries have estimated that batteries and consumer electronic products account for most of the lead in municipal solid waste. Others have identified lead in soldered food cans as the main source of lead in household refuse, it has been observed in some countries that the volume of lead in municipal waste is declining. Studies have also found that health concerns are minimal for properly managed landfills with runoff and leachate controls, and that lead emissions from incinerators can be controlled with proper technology, to 99 per cent or greater efficiency. While much cf the atmospheric emission of lead from incineration can be eliminated, lead captured, by emission control devices and the lead remaining in ashes must be disposed of properly, usually in landfills. 2. Environmental Fate, Transport and Opctirrenee Human activities remove lead from the earth's crust, where it is relatively immobile, and transfer it to environments! media. The potential for human and ecosystem exposure is thus greatly increased, industrialization has vastly accelerated the transport of lead into human and environmental exposure pathways. Substantial human and ecosystem exposure to lead can occur in all environmental media. It has been estimated that the amount of lead emitted per year into the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources has declined to about 30 per cent of the estimated 332 350 metric tonnes in 1983. Sources of atmospheric lead emissions may be considered as belonging to one of two main categories: mobile sources (through the use of leaded fuels in automobiles) and stationary ones (refining, manufacturing and incineration). Air emissions from smelters, processing facilities and solid waste incinerators occur as point source releases from stacks and as fugitive releases Tom storage, processing or materials handling. Lead concentrations in the air in cities in some OECD countries have ranged from 0.5 pg/m3 up to 10 pg/m3 in densely travelled inner city areas. However, restrictions on lead levels in gasoline in many countries have resulted in a marked decrease in automotive emissions of lead into the atmosphere. Air concentrations near point sources often still remain high. Lead accumulates in soils and sediments. As a result of the decline in atmospheric lead emissions, the total annual anthropogenic loading of lead to soils worldwide is considered to have been reduced, from a 1983 estimate of between 479 000 and 1 113 000 metric tonnes per year. Atmospheric deposition of iead is a major source of soii and sediment contamination. The concentration of iead in soils near highways is related to traffic density, local meteorological conditions, vegetation and topography. Lead concentrations decrease with distance from the highway and with depth in the soil column. Lead concentrations associated with stationary sources are dependent on the rate of release from source, dispersion, and deposition rate. Generally, the concentration of lead in soil decreases exponentially downwind of a point source. House paint containing iead can significantly contribute to household dust or soil concentrations of iead. Shot and fishing weights contribute large quantities of lead to soils and sediments. Lead tends to be immobilized by the organic component in scii and remains bound to the soii. It has been suggested that lead immobilized in soil can be released by decreases in 13 DUP040006516 Figure 14 LEAD (000 TONNE LEAD (000 TONNES) Source: LDA1992, ILZSG 1992a, Figure 15 Shot and Ammunition Source: LDA 1992, ILZSG 1992a, 55 DUP040006536 Figure 14 Figure 15 Shot and Ammunition 55 DUP040006536 1.3.7 Shot and ammunition Lead is formed into spherical lead shot to be used as ammunition, or added to certain steel ailoys (steelmaking shot) to improve the steel machinabiiity. Figure 15 shows that the demand for both steelmaking shot and ammunition declined in 1980 in response to foe economic downturn. The demand for lead in steel shot continued to slide because of technological changes, while ammunition demand recovered. Concerns have arisen regarding the ingestion of used ammunition shot by water fowl.^as it can be picked up from sediment in wetlands, and also as a result of the teachability of lead-shot in acidic soil conditions. Some countries restrict the use of lead in such locations. Iron shot is considered ari alternative, but it has an inferior performance and higher cost, it also increases tne wear on gun barrels. Due to its sparking characteristics, iron shot can present a fire risk in certain situations. 1,3.8 Miscellaneous uses Lead can be cast in a variety of forms for products such as yacht keels, and for counterbalance, curtain weights and fishing sinker, to name a few, Figure 15 shows a fluctuating trend in demand for iead in these products, which reflets economic cycles that can be linked to the 1975 oil crisis and the recession of the early 1980s, The use of lead weights, for balancing vehicle wheels has increased along with the increase in the number of vehicles worldwide. Lead-tin-antimony alloys are sometimes east into moveable pieces or lines for typesetting in letterpress printing. This use has been declining steadily due to both technological changes and health concerns. Thin layers of lead can he electrically plated on to steel items for corrosion resistance. This represents a very small but stable demand for lead. Lead can be recovered from many of these uses through the scrap steel recycling system, or through the secondary lead system. Lead is also used in the manufacturing processes of other products. In galvanizing, a layer of molten iead is used in the bottom of a molten zinc bath to assist the separation of dross (impurities) as zinc coatings are applied fo steel for corrosion resistance. Bafos of molten lead are also used in annealing processes for quenching (controlled cooling) of steel products (notably wire) during manufacturing. Lead is reused in these processes. Demand has been small but stable over the last 20 years. 56 DUP040006537 Figure 12 Figure 13 Other Pigments and Compounds Source'. LDA1992,1L2SG 1992a, 53 DUP040006538 1.3.5 Pigments and other compounds Lead pigments are used in glass to improve the refractive index in crystal, which contains up to 36 per cent lead, or optica! instruments (for example, binoculars, microscopes, telescopes, etc.}. Lead is aiso added to glass to prevent exposure to harmful radiation from televisions, computers, video game screens and other cathode ray tubes. In addition, lead-containing glass is also used to provide a seal between metal and glass in fluorescent lamps and Sight buibs. Figure 12 indicates that lead demand for glass has remained stable tor most applications, with the exception of cathode ray tubes where the growth in usage reflects the increase in demand for video and computer terminals. Lead pigments and compounds are used in ceramic glazes or as a component of ceramic products (for example, tiles, foodware, insulators, capacitors and other electrical materials). The demand for inorganic. lead compounds added to glazes, for appearance or for scratch- and corrosion-resistant purposes, peaked in 1980 and has since dropped. The demand for inorganid lead compounds used under glazes to give colour and/or durability to ceramic products has been declining slowly as a result of technological changes. Inorganic lead compounds are also used to give colour and/or corrosion resistance to paints. The-greatest decline in the use of inorganic lead compounds has occurred in household paints. Most OECD countries no longer permit their use in such paints because of health concerns regarding exposures to lead due to the deterioration of the paint and wall surfaces. Since 1970, the use of lead in paints in OECD countries has declined by a factor of 4, to 15 700 tonnes in 1990. Most leaded paint is used today for exterior purposes such as road markings, or as a corrosion inhibitor on iron or galvanized steel. 'r< rpar.i*-, f.nd organic lead compounds are also added to plastic (mainly polyvinyl chloride -- PVC) as tlrtiiizer, <-. [-.rr.vent degradation caused by heat during processing or ultra-violet light during use. "he demand tor iead in plastics:increased by 70 per cent during the 1970s and has since bean mla?'ij/ rtable at about 80 000 tonnes per year. Lead-stabilized PVC is mainly used for cable jacketing, cona-jito, and other building applications such as siding, rainwater-resistant products, v'indn.v Vamino end general ,'trim. Extensive use is also made of PVC for a wide range of piping and fittings. VWithout stabilizers, the life of PVC products is inadequate for most applications involving oxcosurd to sunlight dnd weathering. There has been some concern over the use of 'e?d stabilizers in small borel PVC water pipes. As a precautionary measure, alternative stabilizers such as organotin, barium: or zinc compounds are available for some applications; however, some of these may also raise health concerns. Lead compounds have been used, for medicinal purposes and in cosmetics (as a hair idarkener or an 6ye brightener) within certain populations. However, these are unreported uses. 1.3.6 Cable sheathing Lead can be extruded into a continuous covering to prevent water penetration of underground or underwater power and telecommunications cables. Although this use is recyclable, its demand has been declining because of the development of alternate technologies that replace paper-insulated lead cables with polyethylene and PVC. Since 1970, the use of lead for cable sheathing has declined by a factor of 2.5, to 153 800 tonnes in 1990 (Figure 14). The remaining market is largely for marine cables. Scrapped cable is usually recycled to recover the lead in sheathing, as well as the copper conductor. 54 DUP040006539 DEAD (000 TONNES) Figure 8 Rolled and Extruded Products Source: ,LDA 1992, IUS.G 1992a. Figure 9 LEAD (000 TONNES) 1970 1975 Source: LDA1992, IUSG 1992a. 1980 1985 1990 51 T DUP040006540 Figure 10 1970 , 1975 .So u k s : LDA1992, iUSG 1992a. 1980 Figure 11 Other,Alloys 1985 1990 1970 1975 Source: LDA1992, ILZSG 1992a. 1980 1985 1990 52 DUP040006541 Figure 6 Batteries SU - to start, light and ignite eats, trucks, buses, boats, .etc. Source: LDA 19.92, iLZSS 1992a, Figure 7 Gasoline Additives Source: LDA 1992,1LZS.G 1992a. 49 DUP040006542 Ths properties identified above also permit lead to be used for some packaging materials, such as collapsible tubes for containing corrosive substances {for example, glues) or for wine bottle capsules, a use in rapid decline at this time. The sound and radiation attenuation properties of iead, as well as its corrosion-resistant nature, tend it to use either alone or in the form of sheets bonded to plywood, steei or other material for shielding in X-ray rooms, small isotope containers, enclosures containing noise sources, and linings for reaction vessels and laboratory surfaces, to name a few. Lard need in -Me wz/c MonWIod cV//r: r rotrimorfck: and can easily be recycled at the end of product \>K. Ti.r- oeiroro ter If v.C m Cf'r.r-'fUoVn. Finding and sound proofing materials has gro-"r.. while tte ur- in sli ctr.c-r rcilcd sr.'i eytruoV p'orJncfs has declined (Figures 8 and 9). Although this fio'Tmr r. largely a'incutedt o the inimo ioir.ri piiabie, chemical-resistant and more cost-effeoii-'E? olschc sufisiiiuiee. tiie haro dcciir e o` load use in piping is also attributed to health concerns aseonated ,A'.'-'h tho presir.ee of icKr' in pytablo water systems. The reduction in the amoun. of l<~3d used for `tir.e bottle cac'ijleo during ttio lata 1980s reflects .concerns over lead toxicity, and also an Increase in' the use df plastic substitutes as an industry measure to reduce costs. 1,3.4 Alloys Lead is easily alloyed with tin, antimony, copper or zinc tor use in solders and bearings, or in the production of brass and bronze. There are a variety of applications, as shown in Figures 10 and 11, that will not be described as they are essentially self-explanatory with the exception of terne plate. Terne plate refers to a process whereby a lead/tin alloy (about 50 per cent lead) is used as a corrosion-resistant coating on items such as car fuel tanks and stainless steel roofing materials. The use of lead is declining for the majority of applications in this category, with the exception of terne plating and electronics. The computer and electronic gadget boom of the 1970s and 1980s has resulted in growth in the use of lead solders for electrical connections. Because of health concerns, the use of lead in plumbing solder in drinking water systems has been restricted. These solders are now largely used to join pipes in central heating systems. The use of iead solder for food cans has also been declining because of health-related concerns. However, the demand for lead in the remaining applications has largely declined because of costcutting and technological changes: for example, aluminium radiators have replaced lead soldered copper radiators in some cars because they are lighter in weight Exposure concerns associated with electronic applications relate more to the disposal of components than to their use. In general, electronic scrap represents a valuable source of many base and precious metals, and there is an economic incentive for appropriate recovery processes. Certain primary copper smelters that process complex concentrates also recover precious and base metals, including lead, from scrap electronic components. 50 DUP040006543 Figure 4 World Demand for Lead 1970 (4 502 000 tonnes) Latin America Asia 4% 2%,, 1990 (5 627 000 tonnes) Latin America Asia 4% .23% E.E.S.C, v 21% O.E.G.O, 70% O.E.C.0. 65% E.E.S.C. * Eastern European and .Socialist Countries Source: IL2SG 1990.1S92b, Figure 5 OECD Demand by End Use Category 1970 (3 050 000 tonnes) Pigments & Other Components^ 1990 (3 365 000 tonnes) Gasoline Aiioys^r 4% ' 1 l; Rolled and Extruded Products 12% Cable Sheathing 12% Source: JLZSG 1990,1,992a. 47 DUP040006544 1.3.1 Batteries Since 1970, the battery sector's demand for lead has increased by 79 per cent to 2.12 million tonnes in 1990. Figure 6 shows how lead demand has steadily increased over the last 20 years for a!! types of !ead?add batteries: starting, lighting and ignition (SLI). electric vehicle, industrial, and small consumer products. SLI batteries, which are used in cars, trucks, buses, etc., accounted for 78 per cent of the battery market in 1990. Batteries to power electric vehicles, such as fork lift trucks, airport ground support vehicles,^delivery vans and golf carts, were the second largest category at 14 per dent. The third largest,! category was industrial batteries, such as those used as stand-by power to provide uninterruptible electrical energy supplies for telephone exchanges, public buildings, hospitals, submarines and various industries.1 Lead oxides and alloys with antimony, calcium, etc., are used in the production of battery components sucH as paste,; grids and posts. Other battery components include plastic or ebonite cases, separators, and electrolyte (sulphuric acid). All components can be easily separated and either recycled, reused or safely disposed. Technology is available not only to neutralize the acids, but also to convert the Sulphur for use in fertilizer or detergent products. The extent of application depends, of coursb, onThe availability of markets for these products. 1.3.2 Gasoline additives Lead tetraethyl and tetramethyl gasoline additives improve engine performance. Their economic efficiency resulted in their wide use throughout the world. The demand for lead for the production of gasoline additives in OECD countries peaked during the early 1970s at 340 000 tonnes, but declined to about 72 000 tonnes in 1990 (Figure 7), The decline in demand occurred in two phases, the first of which followed the introduction of unleaded fuel for vehicles with catalytic convertors. During the 1970s, governments (largely North American) required catalytic convertors on new vehicles in order to reduce S02, NO, and other gas emissions. Unleaded gas was developed for these vehicles, as lead caused adverse effects to the exhaust emission control systems. The second phase began in the late 1970s and early 1380s when governments reduced the allowable level of lead in gasoline because of concern that lead compounds discharged into the air along with motor vehicle exhaust gases constituted an unreasonable risk to human health and the environment. 1.3.3 Rolled and extruded products Lead's softness and ability to be alloyed with other metals allow it to be rolled into sheets (largely for construction purposes such as roofing, damp-proof courses at the base of wails, and games for stained glass and leaded windows) or to be extruded to form pipes for carrying water or chemicals. ' Industrial batteries can also be used by electric utility companies for load levelling purposes. The battery provides additional electricity during peak power usage periods of the day and is recharged during periods of low electrical demand, usually at night. Load levelling provides ptility companies with the flexibility to meet new demand, without increasing capacity by building new generating facilities or expanding existing ones. 4:8 DUP040006545 1.2.3 The conventions! sinter and blast furnace process Concentrates are often pelletized to increase porosity. Then heat and oxygen are applied to drive off the sulphur, as SO.,, leaving a sinter of lead metal, lead oxide and other metal oxides or silicates. The SOz off-gas is blown through a cooling and dust collection system before going to an adjacent plant, where it can be used to make sulphuric acid or other sulphur products. Lead oxide is then reduced to metallic lead (bullion) in a blast furnace, while silicates and other impurities form a residual product called slag. Lead recoveries in modern blast furnaces range from 97 to 99 per cent of the lead content in the feed (SRi, 1983)., Some operations recover additional metal from the slag by passing it through a fuming furnace to oxidize and drive off lead and zinc, which can then be collected in the form of flue dust. The molten slag is tapped from the furnaces, it is either granulated and vitrified, by being subjected ,to a water spray, or cooled and solidified slowly by the air. The slag can thenbe stored in piles dither on-site dr in a designated landfill site, or it can be used for construction purposes such as in block form as rip rap for dams. Where slag is used in construction, leachability must be considered. Flue dusts are usually recycled back through the smelting process, 1 1.2.4 Thp direct smelting process The direct smelting process skips the sintering stage described above. Within a single furnace/chamber it uses the exothermic sulphide-roasting reactions, with air to provide the heat requirements to convert PbS to PbO and then produce lead bullion and slag (SRi, 1983). This method has the potential to provide a cleaner working environment by reducing the possibility for vagrant emissions of lead oxide (fume). The S02 off-gas, dusts and slag are collected and treated in the same manner as described for the sinter-blast furnace process. The evolving processes are the Kivcet (Russian design), isasmelt (Australian), QSL (German) and TBRC/Kaido (Swedish), There is also the Outokumpu Oy (Finnish) process, which has not yet been constructed on a commercial scale for lead. 1,2.5 Refining Lead bullion from the smelting stage is refined to remove remaining impurities and traces of other metallic elements, including precious metals, either by the electrolytic or pyrgmetaifurgica! process. In electrolytic refining the lead bullion is cast at the smelter into plates weighing several hundred kilograms, which serve as anodes. Thin sheets of pure lead are inserted into electrolytic tanks with the anodes to act as cathodes. The continuous application of electricity In the solution dissolves the anodes, while the pure lead is deposited on the cathodes. Impurities such as precious metals that settle in the tank are removed for further processing. The refined lead, up to 99.999 per cent purity, is then cast into slabs, called pigs, for market. Pyrometallurgical refining is carried out in a series of large covered or semi-covered kettles. The molten lead is transferred from one kettle to the other by pumping, or by iadle and crane, and each impurity or precious metal is progressively removed from the lead. Some secondary and primary lead producers may also choose to remove or add various metals to produce alloys. The techniques vary with the types of impurities and by-product metals contained in the molten lead. Selective reagents are added to the lead under carefully controlled 45 DUP040006546 temperatures, and the different drosses, containing impurities, that collect on the surface are skimmed off. When all impurities have been removed or the proper alloy is obtained, the lead metal or alloy is cast into pigs. In most cases, drosses are processed to remove precious and other non-ferrous metals. DtfntypMt itild end" u$$s Lead is a dense, bluish-white metal whose physical and chemical properties find application in the manufacturing, construction and chemical industries. It is easily shaped and has long been prized for its malleability and ductility. Some experts believe that lead was used in Egypt as early as 5000 B.C. for pottery glazes. The oldest archaeological evidence of lead use may be a figurine found in the Dardanelles (Asia Minor), dating from around 3800 B.C. Lead was also used in China around 2000 B.C. id coins. It was mined in Greece from around 1200 B.C. and used in coins, ornaments, missiles for slings, and many other articles. The best known use of lead in ancient times is probably as piping in Roman water systems. Since 1970, the world demand for lead has increased by 25 per cent to a record level of 5,627 million tonnes in 1990. OECD countries accounted for 65 per cent of world demand in 1990, with the Centra! and Eastern European countries consuming 21 per cent (Figure 4). Asia is now the third largest and fastest-growing lead-consuming region. During the last two decades, Asian demand for leao increased by a factor of 6 and now accounts for 9 per cent of world demand. The increase largely reflects the rapid pace of economic growth in this region. The international Lead and Zinc Study Group (ILZSG) collects annua! statistics for lead demand by eight broad categories: batteries, gasoiine additives, roiled and extruded products, alloys, pigments and compounds, cable sheathing, shot and ammunition, and miscellaneous products. These data are the most comprehensive for OECD countries. Figure 5 gives a breakdown of lead demand in OECD countries in 1970 and 1990 by end use categories. Over this period, demand in OECD countries increased: by 10 per cent, with the battery sector recording the greatest growth and accounting for 63 per cent of demand in 1900. During the same period, demand significantly declined for lead in gasoiine, alloys and cable sheathing. Health and environment concerns were largely responsible for the decline in the use of lead in gasoline and in certain alloys (for example, lead solders for potable water systems). However, most of the decline largely reflects changes in technology and market-driven requirements for lighter, more cost-competitive and efficient products. Detailed trends in end use demand in OECD countries by broad category are shown in Figures 6-16. The data were assembled by the Lead Development Association (LDA) from information provided by industry in various regions. The following sections briefly describe end uses and trends by broad category. 46 DUP040006547 T * Figure 2 Source: EMR (1970-1991) (based on US <3NP inflator). Figure 3 World Lead Metal Production* i i sis excludes - Eastern European and Socialist Countries Source: ILZSG 1990,1992b. DUP040006548 * The recycling rate of lead-acid batteries has increased in most countries, reaching an estimated 98 per cent in the United States in 1990. The increase in the recyciing rate is largely due to market factors, but also to joint action by industry and government in recent years to increase recycling (BCI, 1992), 1,2 Processing and technology / Lead metal is produced through a series of process stages. The number of stages required to produce metal is dependent on the type of feed material (i.e. mined ore or scrap material). Lead-bearing ores must first be mined and then concentrated before being smelted and refined into lead and lead alloys. Prior to smelting and refining of lead-bearing scrap (batteries), the battery cases must be broken and the acid, plastic/ebonite and lead components separated. The lead content of some scrap, such as lead sheet, pipe or boat keels, is high enough to alloyv it to be directly refined or remeited for reuse. 1.2.1 Mining and concentrating The common minerals in lead ores are galena (PfeS), cerussiie (PbC03) and angiesite (PbSOJ. Galena is the most common mineral and is usually found with other sulphide ores most frequently those of zinc, copper and silver. Ore bodies near the surface are mined by openpit methods, while those that occur at depth must be extracted. Ore is first drilled, then blasted, crushed and carried by trucks and/or conveyors to a mill. There the metal-bearing sulphides are finely ground, separated by froth flotation from waste (Iron and minerals that are not meiai-bearing), and concentrated into separator bulk lead, zinc and copper concentrates. The concentrates are often dried to a specific moisture content, then shipped for smelting. The lead content in concentrate typically ranges from 50-70 per cent. The waste materia! (tailings) is carried in slurry form for use as.back-fill in the mine or for disposal in an on-site tailings ppnd where particulate matter settles out and the effluent can be monitored and/or treated if necessary. Methods to minimize the risk of dusting or spillage of concentrates and tailings can involve ensuring that materials are moist and non-dusting, that the mechanical design of handling systems is used to minimize spillage and permit clean-up, and that old tailings sites can be rehabilitated through options such as flooding, covering with topsoil and/or vegetation, or converting to wetiands/wetcovers. 1,2.2 Smelting and refining Lead-bearing concentrates or scrap must be metaHurgicaily treated to separate iead metal from various impurities, such as sulphur and silicate minerals in concentrates, or sulphates, oxides and other metals in scrap. To extract iead from concentrates requires the conversion of lead sulphide into lead oxide, and then the reduction of the oxide to metallic lead (bullion). The two traditional methods are the imperial Smelting Process (ISP), which simultaneously processes lead and zinc ores and is energy-intensive, or the sinter and biast furnace process, which will be discussed further as it is the most commonly used method at present. Newer, more efficient direct-smelting technologies have been developed and implemented in recent years. 44 DUP040006549 CHAPTER-1 LEAD PRODUCTION, USE AND DISPOSAL 1.1 Production ./ Lead is produced from the beneficiation of ores and concentrates and/or from recycled materials in over 50 countries, in 1990, world production of lead metal was 5.659 million tonnes, valued at over $4.6 billion with slightly over 50 per cent derived from recycled materials. In that year OECD countries accounted for 50 per cent of the world's production of lead in ores and, concentrates and about 64 per cent of the world's metal production (Figure 1). Primary lead metai production (from ores and concentrates) has remained relatively stable since 1970, although there has been an overall decline in output. Secondary production (from recycled materials) has risen steadily, and surpassed primary output for the first time in 1989 (Figure 3), Periodic declines in production often reflect economic downturns, such as the oil crisis in 1975 or the recession of the early 1980s (Figure 3). During the 1982 recession, primary production was impacted to a lesser degree than secondary production, in part because primary lead Is often produced as a by-product or co-product with other metals such as zinc, silver, copper and cadmium, in 1389, 155 mines in 35 countries produced 2.21 million tonnes of lead in concentrate, with co-product (copper, zinc, silver) output valued at over L)S$ 9 billion. Lead is among the most recycled non-ferrous metals. As indicated in Figures 2 and 3, secondary production of lead has grown steadily in spite of declining lead prices, this growth can be attributed to the following factors which, when combined, reflect the favourable economic conditions associated with recycling lead: * Lead retains its physical and chemical properties when recycled, * The lead-acid battery is aimost entirely recyclable. This includes the polypropylene case and the electrolyte, which can be safely neutralised or processed by modern technologies for use in the production of fertilizers or other saleable products, * The battery's dominance is growing as the main end use for lead, in addition, the battery has a somewhat predictable life span and contains a high proportion of lead (estimated to average 50 per cent of the automobile battery's weight or about 8 kg of lead). * Lead applications are used worldwide. Scrap lead is a readily accessible renewable resource which countries without lead mines can easily obtain. For example, EC countries produce very little lead in ores and concentrates, but virtually all of them have secondary lead metal processing facilities, The energy required for producing lead from recycled scrap is lower than that required for primary production. However, because of .its co-product; nature, primary lead is already produced with a relatively !ow energy consumption in comparison with other metals. 41 DUP040006550 IT Figure 1 World Mine Production (Lead in Ores and Concentrates) 1990 (3 344 000 tonnes) World: ,Lsd. Hiejgil; Production (Primary and Secondary) 1990'. (5 653 dob tones) Latin America 13% E.E.S.C. 30% , iS.iW-VV v. W/AV<.' VAfxV/ i/'/ / V V 4 Latin America Asia W r'fSW8& .vV*;/v/ E.E.S.C. K'&'sy# 23% \ \ V % ..VVxAWVAAVVCA AV,V.W'-' mmm -:%?f..... 4=cfe|-gW ^ S. I O.E.C-P, 50% .''xAvWSLM' VS xmismr' &rn^w'm' m* SC- -v y Africa 3% ..... ^ Vv,:r ... Africa .5% ..S.C. Eastern European and Socialist Countries Source: ILZSG 1990.1S92b. 42 DUP040006551 Las informations presentees dans ce tour d'horizon ont ete en grande partie obtenues grace a un questionnaire adress4 debut 1992 a I'industrie internationaie par ('Organisation intemationale de recherche pour le plomb et le zinc. Les reponses fournies au questionnaire provenaient notamment d'entreprises dont les capacites de production de plomb represented une proportion considerable, aussi bien de la production annuelie mondiale que de ceile des pays Membres de i'OCDE. Toutes les industries productrices cle piomb n'ont pas repondu a ce questionnaire. Par consequent, ('information pr4sentee id doit 3tre consideree comme donnant un appergu qualitatif qui risque d'etre incomplet dans certains domaines. De fagon simiiaire, les mesures prises par I'industrie pour nSduire les risques reveled des variations gdographiques qui refietent les differences r4gionales dahs la fagon dont est pergu le risque relatif lie & I'exposition au piomb. La nature et I'ampieur des activites consacrees par i'industrie a ia reduction des risques sont done variables suivant les pays. 6. R4sum4 et observations Presque tous les pays de I'OCDE ont adopt4 des mesures, de nature regiementaire ou non, pour reduire les risques inacceptabies que I'exposition au plomb fait courir a I'homme et aux ecosystemes. Les evaluations et les caracterisations du risque qui ont conduit les pays a reagir conserved un caractere national. Si quelques pays ont pris un nombre comparable de mesures, il n'y en a pas deux qui aient adopts lemSme ensemble de mesures pour la reduction des risques (e'est-a-dire des inititatives ported sur les milieux de I'environnement, les rejets industrieis ou urbalns, les produits, les expositions professionnelles, etc.). L'etude par echantillonnage de la plomb4mie reste I'une des methodes les plus utilisees pour evalusr les.risques que i'exposition au plomb fait courir a la sant4 humaine. Environ 30 pour cent des pays de I'OCDE ont communique des donnees reunies sur la plombemie obtenues lors la surveillance de !a population generate et/ou de fractions de cette population ies plus exposees. Ces pays ont ramene la moyenne de la plombemie dans la population generate a moins de tOpg/dl, soit en recourant a quelques mesures specifiques, spit en langant un nombre considerable ^'initiatives. Dans les pays qui surveiiient la. presence du plomb dans les divers compartiments de renvironnement, ies donnees reveled, en outre, que les concentrations moyennes de plomb od diminus en dega des seuils reglementaires nationaux. Certains pays ont cependant estime que ies emissions de plomb a partir de sources ponctuelles et/ou ie transport de plomb en suspension dans I'air a grande distance eteiient preoccupantes. D'autres ont indique que, si on avail rqcemment reussi a diminuer les concentrations de plomb dans I'air, de plus graves problemes subsistaient au niveau domestique comme la presence de plomb dans Ies boites de conserves importees. dans 1'eau de boisson (speciaiement pour des groupes critiques comme les nourrissons au biberon) od dans !a poussiere et ies eclats provenant d'anciennes peintures d'interieur deteriorees. L'idee sera.it que, lorsque les pays Membres r4flechissent aux strategies permettant de reduire le risque 114 au piomb, ils envisagent de proceder, s'iis ne font deja, a des echantilionnages du plomb dans i'environnement et dans le sang de fagen a determiner les populations ies plus exposees et a evaiuer i'ampieur de i'exposition pour leur population generate, ils pourraient, en outre, chercher a s'inspirer d'experiences d4crites dans (e present document lorsqu'iis mettront au point des mesures, de nature r4g!emenfaire ou non, afin de r4duire ies risques excessifs associes 4 i,'exposition au plomb. De telles mesures pourraient comporter: des reglements et des normes 39 DUP040006552 (portant, par example, sur le plomb dans ies emballages aiimentaires, dans ('essence, dans les emissions des fonderies) en vue de rduire les rejets actuels de plomb dans Pair, dans I'eau, dans le sol, dans la poussiere et sur le lieu de travail; la mise en oeuvre de technologies moins polhigntfis fproduits de remplacement, modifications des precedes, par example*: des svstemes rl'io'i.t's do remessage etne r*-numeral or. vi un v^.-emcri* i'Jc s occhats acceptable di: pe.nL de vue de ''en'/ironnement; des rr.ssures dc luile yiran i r-iduire !c.s risouec **nonuru'. ou fait de I'ft/p"siiicn a des sources do ie,et de plcmc i><?rii.f.es du past'*-' 'pomturns en coum de Jit'1, of'fie n, canalisations ces rtceai'x d'ccu de L^hscn, par example,-; qua des pfemammes industriels ''oioMsires pour la g&oiion de certains pro'Juitf. ocmnr.c ``ah.-;,-don prcprc-cif psr lee- industries de oueluues pays d'&p-Jioaiior.r ? hnut nr-cue rmilisstion de picmb dans les bostes de conserve scudees ou dans les peintures d'interieur, par example). II faudra. en owe, en'fir-aqor d's-arrii-rr a inter'sites resul'ers les.rsultats obtenus en quelquon enn-ten a I'aide cte? ctT*teqis csan: u-du'-r. Ic* ns'iijr.s ss&ccifi? ?,u nlornb, Oti pourran, antra ?i free, icunteles dcf nfi*'s fvjrr.'f ? par di re/', f'embrnc rj; ! ? cur/eii'cnce des niveau.' de o'emb danr' !' rivironnbinonf e` cans e '.ang, sTr,1 ce irrc-rrugLio'is r-ccmes sur leurs regiememations, cnleres, norrncs ou pooiiiqueshationaies concemani I exposition au plomb. 40 DUP040006S53 dans I'eau potable est de 0,05 mg/i. La norme d'emission pour ies appareils de combustion avec un debit de masse superieur a 25 g/h est de 5 mg/rrr\ La norme d'emission pour les incin6rateurs municipaux est de t mg/m3 pour le plomb et le zinx cumules. Pour le plomb present dans i'air sous forme de particules ia concentration toleree est de 1 pg/m3. La deposition sur ie sol ne doit pas depasser 100 pg/m2, Les rejets d'eaux us6es ne doiveni pas contenir plus de 0,5 mg/i. Pour ies eaux de surface la norme est de 0.05 mg/I. Les boues depuration et ies composts sont interdits pour itepsndage si les teneurs en plomb d6passent respectivement 500 et 120 mg/kg. La valeur limits de !a concentration du plomb et de ses derives dans I'air sur ie lieu du travaui (moyenoe'' ponderee sur 8 heures) est de 0,1 mg Pb/m3, a ('exception cependant des derives alkyles, pour lesquels ef!e est fixee k 0,075 mg Pb/m3. Pays ncrdiques : Les pays nordiques ont lanck ensemble un certain nombre d'initiatives pour ia protection de i'environnenient. Le Danemark, la Suede et la Norvfege ont signs ia*' declaration ministerielle de ia troisieme Conference internationale sur la protection de la Merdu Nord. Seion cette declaration, ies emissions de plomb (et d'autres micropolluants) devront avoir ete teduites eh 1995 de 70 pour cent par rapport au niveau de 1985. Le Danemark, la Finlande et la Suede se sont fixk comma objectif pour 1935, par i'intermediaire de la Commission pouf ia protection de 1'environnement marin de la Mer Baltique, d'avoir reduit de moitie leiifs Emissions de plomb, par rapport a I'annee de reference, 1987. Le Groupe de travail nordique a etabli, pour ie Groups des produits chimlques du Gonseil des Ministres des pays nordiques un projet de rapport decrivant les experiences dans cette region sur ies options technoiogiques permettant de reduire i'usage du plomb, L'objectif a long terme des pays nordiques est d'eliminer compietement J'utilisation deliberee du plomb dans ies produits et de reduire au maximum ies quantites de plomb iiberees dans 1'environnement. La strategic adoptee pour remplir cet objectif comprend, par ordre ce preference : I'adoption de technologies meins poliuantes (produits de remplacement et modifications des precedes); systemes efficaces de ramassage et de recuperation et traitement des dechets acceptabie au plan de i'environnement. Communaute europienne : La Communaute europeenne a promulgue des directives fixant la teneur en plomb dans les pioduits et dans ies divers milieux et sources de I'environnement, fi est important de noier qu'une directive1 constitue un acte legislatif en direction des pays Membres et peut, soit contenir des informations tree specifiques, sort revStir un caractere descriptif. Souvent, une directive fixe aux pays Membres une date limits' pour iniegrer sa teneur dans ijsur prppre legislation ; d'ordinaire toutefois, une directive contieridra des informations fjrecises et fixers un dslai d'execution de i'ordre de trois ans. Si un pays Merfibrefih'infcorpore pas ,1a directive dans sa tegislation dans i'intervalle de temps spScifte, une* action peut alors etre introduiie a son encontre devant ies tribunaux europeens. Debut 1989, la Communaute a interdit ('utilisation de carbonates et de sulfates de plomb dans les peintures destinies a foute fin autre que ies travaux de conservation. En outre, site a limits en 1987 les concentrations de plomb dans i'essence dans une directive qui fixe a 0.15 g/I la concentration maximale admissible de composes au plomb dans I'essence au plomo et defini comme essence sans plomb ceile qui en contient moins de 0.013 g/i. En 1993, ia Communaute a interdit ('utilisation de capsules de plomb pour le siiirbouchage des boute'illes de vin. 37 DUP040006554 Dans toutes les sources d'eau de boisson, la concentration maximal acceptable devrait etre de 0.05 mg/I. En 1289, des ncrmes ont ete fixees pour les boues d'epuration utilisees en epandage agricole. La concentration iirnite de picnb dans les sols, dont le pH se situe entre 5 et 7, est de 50 i 300 mg/kg de mature sdche, tandis que la concentration iimiie dans les boues depuration est de 75 & 1 200 mg/kg et la quantiie annuel! de boues d'epuration entrant dans les dpandages agricoles est limiiee k 15 kg/ha (sur une moyenne de 10 ans). La Communaute europeenne a etabli des normes pour i'alimentation animals afin de limiter i'exposition du detail au piomb. Depuls 1988, la commercialisation de produits cosmstiques contenant du plcmb est interdite. Les matieres coforantes ne peuvent pas coritenir plus de 20 mg de piomb par kilo et les antioxydants et emulsifiants utilises dans I'aiimentation pas plus de 10 mg de piomb par kilo. Le taux maxima! de lixiviation pour les recipients en cSramique est de 4 mg/I et de 1.5 mg/I pour les ustensiies de cuisson. Depuis 1988, les peintures, vernis, encres d'imprimerie et produits similaires dont un centieme du poids est assimilable a des metaux lourds doiveni tre repertories, embalies, et etiquetes conformSment aux nbimes de la Communaute. Celle-ci a fixe en 1886 ies concentrations limites de piomb & 0.15 mg/m3 dans I'air et a 70 pg/dl dans !e sang et les seuils d'interventions a 40 pg/m3 pour I'air et k 40 pg/dl pour le sang. Industrie : L'industrie internationale des metaux non ferreux a pris toute une variete d'initiatives qui peuvent felre considerees comma des mesures de reduction des risques associSs au piomb. Ces activites sont rdsumees dans la section consacree a i'industrie. Elies appartiennent generalement a i'une des differentes ' categories suivantes : 1) modifications du proc#de technique et/ou lutte centre ies emissions ; 2} rrtise en place d'une surveillance medicate et de programmes d'hygiene grcfessionnelle pour les travaiileurs exposes ;3) financement(de recherchbs visant si verifier ijefficaciie des iimites en:vigueur pour I'exposition professionrielie et celie du public en general et k mettre au point de nouvelies methodes de' sOrveillahce 'de fagon a protdger ja sante humaine et 1'environnement; et 4} application de programmes de bonne1 gestion des produits destines a informer les utilisateurs ulte'rieurs des precautions qui doivent 'etre prises pour proteger la1 sante des employes et des cbnsommateurs. Les normes professionnelies relatives a i'exposition au piomb sont differentes suivant les pays de I'OCDE. Ceux-ci ont, ainsi, fixe des limites maximates d'exposition professionneiie qui vont de40 a 80 pg de piomb par decilitre de sang. Les normes deposition professionneiteifau' piomb en suspension dans i'air variant egalement entre les pays d'e I'OCDE, on rencontre des seuils de 50,100 ou 150 pg/m3 dans ies differentes reglementbtions ou iegisiatigns natibnaies. Les industries productrices et consommatrices de1 piomb recourent a des cq'ntrSlep techniques completes par des programmes d'hygiene jjersonhelle et autres programmes 'de protection afin de reduire au maximum I exposition des travaiileurs auxquels ils impbsent lfe port de respiraieurs individuals, lorsque ces limites d'pxpcsition nepeuv,ent' papjetre respectees autrement. ii exists generalement peu de correlation entre le plombjdans i'airjet le piomb daps ie sang, une bonne hygiene personnels etant generalement considered comme ie facteur le pius important pour limiter i;|||sj ct^; pioiirito ^VJiCAPA) a decidefen juin 1990 d'drf&tlir li prddufction' de capsules contenant du piomb destinees au surtiduchage des boutdilles de' vin. 38 DUP040006555 doivent mair.tenant etre etiquetes en consequence, En outre, un groupement d'industriels et d'artisans est convenu avec les autorites responsables de taux maximaux de soiubiiite pour la poterie vemle culte au four. Le Mexique a fixe k 150 pg/m3 la concentration maximale admissible de plornb sur les lieux de travail et envisage de i'abaisser encore jusqu'a 50 pg/m3. NouveIte-Z6lande : Les composes a !a cteruse ne peuvent pas etre fabriques, importes ou utilises dans les peintures, les delrempss, les revefements pulverulents, les pigments ou dans les prcduits anti-salissure. La quantile maximale admissible de plornb dans'la peinture est de 5 000 mg/kg, cependant, cette concentration devrait etre ramenee a 2 500 mg/kg courant 1993. La concentration maximale admissible de plomb dans I'essence est de 0.013 g/i {essence sans plomb) et de 0.46 g/l {essence au plomb). La date limits pour la suppression totals du plomb dans i'essence a ele fixe au mois de. janvier 1996. Les fournitures utilisees pour ecrire, dessiner, marqusr ou peindre, contenant plus de 100 mg/kg de plomb, sont interdites. La quantity maximale admissible de plomb dans les produits de reveternent pour les jouets est de 5 000 mg/kg. Cette concentration sera ramenee a 2 500 mg/kg lorsque la regimentation sur les substances toxiques, datant de 1983 sera modifiee pour la quatrieme fois. Dans les matieres plastiques faciiement accessibles sur les jouets, la quantite maximale acceptable de plomb est ilimitee a 250 mg/kg. La directive de Sa Nouvelle-Zelande sur I'eau de boisson fixant la concentration de plomb a 0.015 mg/i s'appuie sur les directives de i'QMS relatives k la qualite de i'eau de boisson, datant ds 1984. II a ete propose de re-examiner cctte ncrme en 1993 de fagon a I'aiignsr sur les nouveiles directives de I'OMS. Les fractions maximaies admissibles de plomb dans ralimentation vont de 0.2 a 10 ppm, selon !e produit alimentaire considers. Les concentratibns de plomb dans les boues depuration destinies a etre epandues sur des terres "arables ont ete limitees en 1092. La concentration maximale acceptable de plomb dans les boues d'epuration seches est de 600 mg/kg, lavaieur maximale acceptable dans le sol est de 300 mg/kg, et la charge maximale cumulee etant de 125 kg/ha. La NouVelle-Zbiande a propose une directive nationals sur la qualite de I'air ambient de 1.0 pg de plomb par m3 pour une dutee moyenne de 3 mois, en moyenne glissante. Sur les lieux de travail, la norme d'exfSosition au plomb dans i'air est de 0.15 mg/m3. Royaume-Uni : S'agissar.t des peintures au plomb, ie Royaume-Uni a adopte une legislation qui interdit ('utilisation de carbonates et de sulfates de plomb dans les peintures. Conformement a ces dispositions, ces carbonates et sulfates ne peuvent tre utilises que dans des peintures destinies a certains bailments historiques et pour la protection d'oeuvres'd'art. La concentration maximale admissible de plomb est de 0.15 g/i dans ('essence au plomb et de 0j 013 g/l dans I'essence sans plomb. La reglementation applicable a I'eau de boisson fixe la concentration maximale de plomb a 50 pg/i. II a ete recemment propose une reglementation interdisant I'trtilisation de certaines soudures au plornb dans les installations locales d'approvisionnement en eau a usage non industriel. La concentration maximale admissible de plomb dans le sol, apres epandagee de boues d'epuration a ete fixee a 300 mg/kg dfe matiere so tide seche. La norm de qualite pour 1'air ambiant est de 2.0 pg de plomb par m3 (concentration annueile moyenne). Le Royaume-Uni controie les sources ponctuelies d'emissions atmospn^riques et autres installations emettant du plomb en recouranl aux meilleures methodes applicabies dans la pratique. Les sources industrlelles doivent respecter une 35 DUP040006556 concentration admissible de plomb de 0.002 g/m3 et ceile de I'ensembie des particuies emises ne doit pas depasser 0.1 g/m3. Les concentrations admissibles de piomb dans ies eaux usees varient suivant les industries et I'empiacement des installations. D'ordinaire, les concentrations admissibles se situent entre 1.0 et 5.0 mg/I. LG .V/yaumr 'Jr; n elabii des noimc? nr* quaiitc cl deiiquetage pour tcute ur.e gamme tie p'^d'-iic de ccnsGrG-fiEuv'i dr qua ` c'renttEfrr, cu p'omb rcitgenv'ilement Sirr.it^c dans los danrew eiimsnte'rfc!) / i.0 5'"-c '/g c X'lourr- 'rif-'.-ieurcs Gourdes oal-xorios oariicu'ieres d'aiiments corr.me caux qui sor.t ties'ineo am: ficinriosoos (0 2 mg/kg,. uopuir- 193, les >js*en?ilc en rCrarr.iqve sc! ecumis e regierrentation. I.'induct,-io e'esi ./u accordsr cinq am pour rprxecier fee conocnfrr.r ,r<. ma/imates de piomb de C/: mg/dm* dan*- ies ustensiies picis, ^.0 rrig/l pour tec pet`1=5 rccplsn'.s oreux {.Tio:ns de 3 litres; * ' 1.5 rg/i pour :ee recipterr? creu/ de Gcr.for.aricr- superleure a 5 litres. En outre, Ip Roy,',urn- L'm I'miL'5 i'ijt'i:s&-icn tie 0"irluree <cu pie no rises les proauSls tie concotr.meiior.. Sion rju'il ii'.v/teto pan dr ' eg'en.-.en;-. rcgterxnt I' -l:imir.ation ties piles et batteries ot batteries cor.:- k pavt, ier- isuy oc roc &' . sort p m-* moment eieves (plus de 80 pour cent) pour its b&ttcrice ciomb-acide utiiisaes dans les bailments et dans ies vehicuies automobiles. Series lieuxde travail, la concentration maximale admissible de plomb estde 0.15 mg/m3 (moyenne penderee sur une periods de 8 heures). La concentration admissible de plomb dans ie sang est de.70 pg/dl pour les hommes et de 40 jxg/dl pour ies femmes. Pour la population en general, la recommandation des pouvoirs publics publie en 1982 preconisaii de prendre des mesures afin de reduire I'exposition si ia concentration de plomb dans ie sang depassait 25 pg/dl. Sudde : En1 1991, ie gouvernement a decide que des measures soient prises afin d'eiiminer progressivement I'utilisation du plomb grace a des accords volontaires et de parvenir a long terme a son elimination totals. Les composes a la ceruse n'entrent pas dans la composition des peintures ; on utilise cependant de petites quantites de plomb dans les peintures en tant que pigments, siccatifs et agents antirouille. La Suede limite latteneur du plomb dans I'essence a 0.15 g/i pour ('essence au plomb et a 0.013 g/l pour I'essencs sans plomb. Une proposition recente vise a I'interaiction de ia fabrication et de I'importation d'essence contenant du plomb a partir du Ier juiliet 1994. L'eau qu les concentrations en plomb sont inferieures & 0.01 mg/I est estimee propre a I'utilisation comme eau de boisson, Les normes pour I'air et pour J'eau sont tixees au cas par cas, au cours du processus d'autorisation d'installaticns. Pour les denrees aiimentaires, Ies seuiis acceptables ont recemment ete abaisses a 0.3 - 0.5 mg/kg pour ia plupart des aliments en boTte de conserve, et se situent entre 0.02 et 0.05 mg/kg pour diverses denrees aiimentaires (des concentrations plus elevees sont admises pour les epipes et certains autres preduits). Les ustensiles en ceramique, destines a contenir des aliments et des boissons, sont interdits a la vents si i'on observe une iixiviation du plomb depassant 3 mg/! au cours d'un essai normalise avec de i'acide acetique. La Sudde a ianed un programme energique de recyclage de batteries qui est finance en grande partie par ies taxes sur les piles et. batteries. Sur ies lieux de travail, ia concentration maximale admissible de plomb dans I'air est de 0.10 mg/m3 (du volume total) et de 0.05 mg/m3 (du volume respirable). Suisse : L'utiilsation des derives du plomb dans les peintures d'interieur est interdite. La teneur en plomb est limited a 0,15 g/l dans i'essence au plomb, a 0.013 g/l dans I'essence sans plomb et a 0,56 dans le kerosene pour svions. La concentration autorisee 36 DUP040008557 fair sur le lieu de travail est de 0,10 mg/m3 (moyenne ponderee sur une duree de huit heures), La concentration maximum de plomb autorisee darts le sang des travailleurs exposes est de 50 jxg/di. Norme de scurit& alimentaire : la teneur maximum de plomb dans les fruits, ISgumes et boissons est de 0,3 mg/kg, et de 1,0 mg/kg dans les denies en conserve. La lixiviation maximum de plomb a partir d'ustensibles en cSramique destines au contact alimentaire a ete definie. L'eau de boisson ne doit pas contenir plus de 0,05 mg de plomb par litre. France : La teneur en plomb de I'essence a ete ramenSe a 0,15 g/i en 1991 et I'essenqe sens plomb .(rrcins de 0,013 g de plomb par litre) a beneficial d'allegements fiscaux^qui rendent son prlx de detail inferieur k ceiul de I'essence au plomb. En France, les eaux de surface destinies a la production d'eau potabie ne doivent pas dSpasser une concentration maximum de plomb de 0,05 mg/I. La concentration de plomb dans 1'air ambiant doit respecter la moyenne annuelle de 2 pg/m3. II exist des normes pour limiter les emissions de plomb a partir d'instaliaticns industrielles et autres. La concentration eh plomb dans, les bques depuration epandues sur les sols ne doit pas depasser 800 ppm. La France .limite les quantitesde plomb qui peuvent migrer d'ustensiles' de cuisine en ceramique dans les aliments, n'autorise de soudure qu'a i'exterieur 'des boites de conserve, et se1 conform^ a ^interdiction, impost par la Communaute. europeenne a partir deJanvier 1993, d'utlliser des capsules de plomb pour le surbouchage des bouteilles de vin. L'imp'-rteLi'pn et la Write de peintures contenant des'derives blancs du plomb sont interdites.dep'ijis le' 1 er'fSvrier 1993. Le recyclage des piles et batteries^'effe'ctue dans le cadre de d&posMsiacultatife congus pour faciliter la recuperation et 'le transport des piles et battdries usees. Japon : Le Japon n'interdit pas l'utilisation de peintures au plomb mais limite, grSce a des accords voiontaires, I'ampieur de i'utilisation de ces peintures (qui sont interdites pour les jouets et dans les habitations). Les peintures au plomb sont essentiellement utilisees dans la construction, ies automobiles et les produits Slectroniques. L'essenee au plomb n'est ni produite, .ni importee, ni utiiisee au Japon. La concentration maximale admissible de plomb dansTeau de boisson est de 0.1 mg/i. Le Japon a defini pour les fonderies et les autres installations de traitement du plomb des normes d'emission comprises entre 10 et 30 mg/m3 s&ion les installations. Dans les rejets d'eaux usees, la concentration en plomb doit'stre infkrieure a 1 mg/I. La concentration autorisee sur les lieux de travail est fixee a 0.1 mg/m3. Mexlque : Le Mexique poursuit un programme Snergique en vue de reduire la concentration de tetraethyiplomb dans ('essence ordinaire. Ce pays a commence a utiliser en 1990 de i'essence sans plomb (moins de 0.01 g/l). il a diminue de 88 pour cent la teneur en plomb de ('essence entre 1988 et 1992. Pour l'eau de boisson, les autorites ont fixe pour le plomb un plafond de 0.05 mg/!. En outre, ie Mexique a fixS des normes pour le plomo dans les denrees alimentaires. ies produits pharmaceutiques et les produits cosmetfques. La concentration maximaie admissible de plomb dans ia sauce tamale est de 0.36 mg/kg et de 10 ppm dans ies pigments organiques synthetiques ajoutes a la nourrsture, les boissons, les produits pharmaceutiques et Ies produits cosmStiques. Le MeXique a supprime I'utilisation de la soudure au plomb dans {'assemblage des boites en ter blanc et fixe la concentration maximaie admissible de plomb dans les peintures de revStement a 90 mg/kg. Les industries ont accepts de supprimer I'utilisation de minium fit de carbonate au plomb dans' les pigments, la laque, i'emaif, la peinture et le vernis sur ies jouets, ies crayons, les articles scolaires, les encres d'imprimerie, ies procuits cosmetiques, les meubies et les peintures d'interieur. Les produits contenant du piomb 34 DUP040006559 Les autorit6s municipales responsables des systemes de distribution d'eau de boisson doivent maintenir aux principaux branchements du rseau une concentration de plomb inferieure a 40 pg/l. Les canalisations de plomb ne sort plus utiiisees et les vieux roseaux en plomb sont progressivement remp!ac6s. Les tuyaux de cuivre doivent 6tre soudis avec des alliages sans plomb. Beaucoup de Under allemands ont iimite la concentration de plomb dans le sol. Par exemple, le Land de Rh6nanie du Nord-Westphalie limits a 20 mg/kg la concentration de plomb dans les bacs & sable des enfants. La concentration maximum de plomb acceptable dans fair est limitee & 2.0 |xg/m3 (mo^enm annuelie); le maximum des dgpdts sur te sol est fixe & 0.25 mg/mz et par jour. La totality des Emissions metalliques {plomb compris) & partir des fonderies de plomb est limitee & 5 mg/m3. Pour les rejets directs dans I'eau, les limites variant entre 0.3 et 2.0 mg/i, selpn la categorie de Installation. L'utilisation de boues depuration & des fins agricoles est interdife par ia loi si la teneur en plomb de ces boues dgpasse 900 mg/kg. Di /ik-rr'nc. des ai> ur; limits iPXct\\*'f-Pe fur Scbadstoffe in Lebensmitteln, ZEBS) c '.t cfo ibecr pour r coper* <`r - t Lc " t!irr.'.ma'-f ' M ''cnt de 0.03 a 2.0 mg/kg. En c A-.e, Ik "regiment sur le j \r/ f incicure un pleicnd p'ur !e vin. Dec lignes 'directrices fclativ's c l f-'omb or1 U 6t?bl'sr pour d'autmr. decrees eiimentaires. On nMiise plus do bcTtes de c?.rrpr./es coudeec pcur le c'.nditfori.ierrcr.i ces decrees aiimentaires. Les capsule." de plomb pour if r-urtsouchsqe dee bnuusiilcs de vin sort interdites a partir de 1033, conformc-icrt ^ un re-glemcrt d? le Communaute europeenne. Le taux de recycles. des p'^s e* Patience piomb-acide scran superieur k 95 pour cent.1 Sur le lieu de travail, !c cove`.'ration irsximf is d- pii-nd accpfcblc rims fair est de 0.10 mg/m3 (ma.rr.r.epcir/teraesui une per .coeds" hr cr.c >.I.r concentrationmaximal^admissible de plomb cans le crar-g dec tra"sii:.vir- ert d. 7r> ug/di ccur les hommesjet pour les 'err.rr.r-o au-riov us de &r, av. et de c0 gq/d1 pout Isc ismmes de moinside 45 arts. Ij'epres les reccrmardaiionr. o p c/Vains pi siolooir-.es et toxicolpgues, les coricprtrstons do pLorr.b dans le sang dec crick3c v d' ient pas depassor 15 pg/dl, et 10 pg/di chez les en;a,us et les femmes en jge cc procreer. Austraiie: le Gouvemement australien encouraae les modes de production et d'utilisation du clor i>' ' >i cont <v nf )r.'ip-r wi; pr-O'-ce- tic do '^'-.pf-Tient durable sur le plan er noqioue Cc pa-'" !!mi c 1.3 fg bncal'cn et I'uiinratici' do, p-'intures d'interieur au plomb avert uric teneur tie 0.2; pour ren dc produ 1 ion vciatil, m impose une concentration do olr-.ib den" IV scree cm dou eos"m.r, si-T-ran* Ice rtgim.c, entre 0.3 et 0,84 gramme par litre Dncur le ler jsm-ier d-Sf, toutcc lee ''oiuras r eu 'cs importees ou fabriquees fsurf.'ace root tenuse cc 'onctiomera I svrarrr p iom'o o'est-a-dire contenant moins de *3 grr.'nne d- pirrtib r/.r i'trc-. Le r4rulJ?J de o-t'c politique est qu'Si 1'heure acf.ic I; !cc -'er 'r d '-''so.,';0 s-tv; plomb ^oycc'ici. lsr.CC pour cent des ventes totales. Ver" 1;; 'in de o ec.-ric c jrenr..e, cc cd.dr dc/rait r''c'siner les 80 pour cent. En ourc t-: r." c ocys. !a ccnce,).'"4'r r d~. r,i.;rnd rent ivo invssions a partir de sources prii./.uolif s '1 rc ne dv! ra'" di.usc.'tr *.5 1 art- *-i. -.lorarr.e surtrois mo)s. Dans I'eau de bri^vcr,, c p*-c cot-'x ''.fttc* r.e co.t r>jp "i'-ccr >.'T, r. g/i et les concentrations de pirfT.o r.ret:rab!cr- dan. ties r1 rnenrs donru.' -1 c. tueri entre 0,2 et 2,5 npg/kg, seion la d!'n."'e conr>ierce. `.c c'jr.cprtrei.nr, cJ.j f io;rr. renc lee vornis pour ceramiques est li r " 11 ir' ' 'papier, les iouets/les crayons dejeouieuret les coukura pour !=? peinti.ra arii'iiaue fjusqu'e 0,01 p-v j j cent). Bien qu'il njexiste pas de ryg'.en-ent rc-gissent le rscycieop o* pi'^o r. . gJ<ev.s au piomb, i'industrjie signals que 31 DUP040006560 Canada : La publicity concernant des peintures contenant du plomb, airtsi que leur importation et leur vente, sont iimittes. Le plomb est totere dans les produits (peintures), uniquement destines k ('utilisation exterieure, qui doivent etre dtiquetes dans ce sens, L'industrie canadienne de ia peinture avoiontairement cessd en 1991 d'utiliser du plomb dans les peintures destinies aux habitations (interieur et exterleur). Ce pays a interdit en 1990 d'utiliser de I'essence au piomb (dont la teneur ne doit pas depasser 5 mg/I), sauf dans ie cas d'utiiisation dans des Squipements essentiels (oCi ia teneur ne doit pas depasser 26 mg/I). Actueliement, i! limite ia concentration de plomb dans i'eaude boisson a 10 pg par litre et, en matiere de plomberie, a 0,2 pour cent pour les soudures e fes fondants en contact avec I'eau de boisson. Cans ('alimentation, les conoenlrettens de clomb autorisdes variant antra 0,08 mg/kg dans ,ec r.iir.ier.t" r>jcr nou'ripens et i.3 r-'f'i-f. pour ies produits a base de tcmate. 11 existe des rormet nationalec ar plu-afru a la queIds des eaux ambiantes (0,001 a 0,007 mg de plomb par iitre pour tec ppu / doucef a faune ou a flore aquatiques), aux sois et a I'atinospU-rc -'0,028 a 0 q/or pour les particules Gmises k partir de fonderies de piomb do dcuxic-me coulee). Le teneur or. plomb est limits a 0,5 pour cent dans les ni.?iirres c'o meter.ien; d'otiec Destines aux enfants. Le Canada recycle, selon les estimation'', 93 pou: cam -Jr:* p1 c Pineries plomb-acide. Les piles et batteries au piomb ruTipiieo 'decide cent cL'.c-tt-s oc-mme dangereuses et, de ce fait, ieuf transport et teur clccbaac sent rc tenvnl'js per des dispositions federates et provinciates. Les competences en masere de regterr.finte'.ion visard ia manutention de dOchetS1 nontenant ou piomb so,nt rtponies eu'-re cronies H-derates et provinciates. Le Canada a lance des programmes approforidis d'ensfeig'hement et d'etiquetege visant & sensibiliser la collectivity au* danglers a^soctes' a I'exposition au piomb. Danemark: Les activites sur ia reduction des risques lies au plomb visent une elimination .que des accords librement conseritis. Les moyens k meitfrjh'' eh oeuvre seraient ia substitution et a defaut i'amelifxaiian du recycled. En outre une action international parait necessaire afin d'arriver a I'elimination de i'utilisatidn du plomb. Etals-Unis : Les Elals-Unis limitent ou interdisent I'utiiisation de produits contenant du plomb lorsque les risques associe^ a ces produits sont eieves et qu'ii existe dss produits de remplacement pour ie piomb ou les produits a base de plomb. En 1991, ies centres charges du controle des maiadiesf (Centers for Disease Control) ont abaisse le seuil de concentration de piomb admissible d&hs le sang des enfants k 10 pg/dl. Avant cela, en 1986, EPAjavait situe la concentration prkoccupante k 10-15 pg/dl et possibiement plus bas. Dans un rapport au Cbngres de 1988; ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substance Disease Registry) donnaii ie meme niveau1 preoccupant. L'une des sources de plomb presentant le risque d'empoisonnement ie plus eleve chez i'enfant aux Etats-Unis est constitute par les peintures contenant du piomb. Le Gouvernement federal atetabli pojbr les peintures d'interieur une norme de 0.06 pour cent pour le piomb, ce qui. On fail! interdit I'utiiisation du plomb dans ces peintures. Une loi (Residential-based Paint Hazard (Reduction Act) adoptee en 1992 a fournr ie cadre pour une action au niveau federal vislant a reduire ies dangers lies k ('exposition a des peintures k base de plomb utilisees dans ies maisons. Dans i'essence au piomb, ia quantity de plombj auroriste1 iparjiitrfe aux Efats-Unis est de 0.026 g. Tous les nouveaux vehicules utilitaires llege'rs, .camions, motocycies et poids-iourds a essence doivent fonctionner a i'ess'erce sans plcmb (0.01 g/l). A partir de 1995, ('essence au piomb et ies 32 DUP040006561 absorbSe dans i'crganisme varie en fonction tie ia concentration et de la composition (par exemple, taifle ties particuies, forme chimique) du piomb inhal# ou ingere. Quelques pays surveiilent les concentrations du piomb dans les divers compartiments de I'environnement, ainsi que dans le sang, de tagcn a 6valuer les ifsques associSs & ("exposition et I'efficacife des mesures prises pour reduire ces risques. Dans les pays oi Ton surveiite revolution des concentrations de piomb, les donnEes montrent que si ia demand de produits conlenant du piomb (et eventuellement la quantity de piomb destine a ('Elimination finale) a augment#, les concentrations moyennes de piomb dans I'air, i'alimeniation et fe sang out diminuE en dega des sculls considEres dangereux au niveau national. Dependant, on atrcuvE dans quelques pays des groupes tie population oCt les concentrations continuent de depasser ces seuils. Ces expositions Elevees au piomb sont souvent liees E des rejets de source ponctuetle, a ['utilisation anterieure de peintures contenant du'piomb, ou E des canalisations et des soudures en piomb dans les reseaux d'eau potable. Les raisons de la diminution des concentrations de piomb variant suivant les pays ou les regions et sont partiel'ement infiuenoees par des facteurs locaux (par exemple, climat, conditions; socb-economiques). La diminution des concentrations de piomb dans ies divers milieux de I'environnement et dans le sang est ordinairement attribute aux facteurs suivants : limitations et reduction des utilisations susceptibles de disperser le piomb ou de le rendre facilement biodisponible, telles que : piomb dans I'essence piomb dans ies boites de conserve soudees soudures et canalisations de piomb dans les reseaux d'eau potable, piomb dans certaines peintures, et - pesticides au piomb ; mise en place de mesures de nature regiementaire et non regiementaire pour la gestion des emissions et des rejets industrieis (E partir des fonderies, par exemple); surveillance des reseaux de distribution d'eau et contrdle du pH afin de reduire ia solubilite du piomb a partir de canalisations contenant du piomb ; mise au point et application de reglements et de techniques pour une gestion sure des dechets contenant du piomb destines k Eire eliminEs definitivertient dans des decharges ou des ineinerateurs. 4. Exposes ties positions rationales sur les risques actuals imputabies au piomb Les dEclarations des pays Membres, qui figurant dans le present document, fournissenf I'analyse raisonnee de toutes ies dispositions qui ont eie prises pour fair face aux consequences de i'exposition au piomb pour la sante de I'homme et de I'environnement. Les evaluations et, caracterisaiions des risques qui ont amene des pays a prendre des mesures ont un caractere national. Ces pays ne prennent position sur les mesures necessaires pour riduire les risques qu'apres avoir anaiysE ie danger et la gravite de certaines expositions et pris en compte divers facteurs locaux d'ordre social, economique et politique. Ces positions sont adoptees d'ordinaire apres examen approfondi des nombreux facteurs en cause et different d'un pays Membre de i'OCDE a fauire. 29 DUP040006582 Ce chapitre contiertt bgalement (Evaluation des risques iis au plomb qui a ete etablie sur une base internationale par le Programme international sur la sbcurite des substances chlmiques (P1SSC). LEvaluation qui est reproduite provient des Chapitres 1 et 9 du projet de text du document sur le plomb de la s&rie "Criteres de I'hygiene de I'environnement" qui a ete reeemment mis a jour et dont la publication est pr6vue pour 1993 ou 1S94. 5. OisposHifs^pour la reduction des rlsques ` >' : Au cours de ces demieres dbcennies, ia plupart des pays Membres ont pris des dispositions pour reduire ies risques inacceptables que ('exposition au plomb fait courir a I'homme et aux cosystemes. Les limitations imposbes & I'utiiisation du plomb dans certains produsts susceptibles d'entrafner une exposition important (par exempie, peintures d'interieur, essence) figurant parmi ies pius< efficaces de ces mesures. En accompagnement de eelles-ci, des' dispositions ont 6te prises pour mettre au point des criteres fixant les concentrations de plomb acceptabtes dans les diyers milieux de I'environnement, pour limiter les emissions industrielles de plomb dans I'environnement, pour reduire les expositions professionnelies et pour definir des indicateurs biologiques pqrmettant d'identifier les populations a risque. Bien que bon nombre de ces mesures aient rAussi1 k teduire Imposition au plomb, quelques pays Membres continuant d'envisager des initiatives susceptibles d'abajfeser encore I'exposition au plomb, a la lumiere, notamrnent, de nouveaux elements donnant' a penser que des concentrations eonsiderees auparavant comme inndffensivss pouvaient avoir des effets sur la sante. Ce chapitrp passe en revue les activites que les pays Membres ont consacrees a ia gestion des risques. I! cpqtient aussi I'examen cie dispositions deja prises pour teduire imposition au plomb. ainsi que d'activites en cours et de mesures bventuelies que certains pays envisagent de prendre k I'avenir. Les activites de gestion de risque sp6cifiquement nationales sont resumees dans is tableau 5.1. Comme le montre ce tableau, I'ampieur de ces activites varie consicterablement d'un pays k I'autre. : Ce chapitre dbcrit ies, activites menses pour reduire ies risques lies au plomb dans treize pays (Allemagne, Australia, Canada, Danemark, Etats-Unis, Finlande,, France, Japon, Mexique, Nouvelle-Zelande, Rbyaume-Uni, Suede, Suisse), les pays nordiques et la Communaute europeenne, et propose ensuite un resume des cispositions prises en la mattere par Industrie. On trouvera a la fin de ce chapitre, une serie de tableaux qui recapitulent Ies donnbes disponibles sur les dispositions prises dans tous ies pays Membres et au Mexique pour reduire les risques. Tous ies pays Membres ont 6te invites k plusieurs reprises en 1991 et en 1992 k fournir des informations sur lesijaclivites visant teduire les risques associes au plomb; Dans le present rapport, I'absence d'infbrmations pour un pays donnb signifie, soil que ce pays ne consacre pas d'activites k la reduction des risques, soil qu'il n'a pas repondu aux demandes d'informations. Les paragraphes suivants tesument succinctement Ies informations figurant dans ce chapitre, en dehors de celies donnees dans les tableaux : Allemagne : S'agissant de peintures, ies composes a ia ceruse sent interdits a la vente et ceile de peintures anlicorrosives contenant du piomb est en train d'etre abandonrtee, Les recipients de peintures dont ia concentration en plomb d^passe 0.15 pour cent dbivent tre eliquetes en consequence. La teneur maximum de ('essence au piomb est limitee depuis 1976 k 0.15 g/I et ('essence sans piomb (teneur interieure k 0.013 g/l) est commercialisee depuis 1982. En 1992, la part du march de {'essence sans piomb a depasse les 80 pour cent. 30 DUP040006563 Airborne lead particles can exist in a range of chemical forms, which in turn may influence their environmental properties and toxicity. A water-soluble form will be both more mobile in the environment, and more readily absorbed by the human body, than the insoluble form. Automotive lead emissions are mainly in the form of lead bromochloride (Hirschler et al., 1975; Habibi, 1973}. This appreciably water-soiubie compound is rather rapidly converted in the atmosphere to ammonium lead sulphate, a rather less soluble species (Biggin and Harrison, 1979). The r herTii*"T of industrial erriscions depends upor the process in '"hich the" arise. Amongst trni..--=.if.ns hem ^rnehero o 'vie s'~ri su come `erms <"t iesd arc I'rvz'-r.n. `Fez ma, iSS/i. These fi,rn'.s rrc hs? wrrer-coluble than aufemet-'e omirsioris, hut -*'iil1 eccmo mci'e v';i'rt/.r- ihrr.jgh (-n roomer,taiwp.jiij-.fc ring pro cesses. ! ead associated wi-l windblown ores lends to y e In the iorm of sulpnides and sulphate ('Harrison and YA'Krtn.o, 100.1-. The c.rnor ."re %,e~' mooliitle but can oxidize ic the more soluble sulphate in the environment. r.-*;pcnrjir,r, o.'i the pa"ici'= f ;7.c , siroome suspended particles may have a long residence time ir the- etmoephem-. R\>dter fro-r* remoi; area', indicate tliat lead-containing particles are transp orred <-ve- substcniiai d-sian-es, u d -o ih' of kilometres, by general weather systems. Murozumi ct al. (1939) ar-d D :uLr-..n HOfel, ha >e round significantly increased lead levels in polar ice and f.iwderc. resulting von: ic'r-r? noc trar '.-pci . of lead-containing aiibome particles. Steinnes et al. ;13h ) have demonstrated f-'at lead cx.rr.pounds' are enriched in mosses, podzolic soils, ombrtTropic peat and orner en /ircnmeruai targets >'r southernmost Norway from deposition of long- range transported atmospheric pollution. Studies of Ipad in the motorway environment can account for deposition of less than 10 per cent of emitted lead within 100 metres of the road (Wiffen, 1977; Harrison et al., 1985). The remaining 90 per cent plus escapes ideal deposition and travels greater distances. Measurement of leap: over the North Sea shows average concentrations of 0.005-0.09 pg/m3 (Harrison and Ottiey, 1 ^90), only a little below typical rural levels in the United Kingdom. Lead may be removed from the atmosphere by either wet or dry deposition. The consequence of the removal is the contamination of surface waters (rivers, lakes and oceans) and soils. The! most'efficient clearing system 'is rain (wet deposition). According to the distance of atmospheric transport1, the transport pattern has been described as "near fall-out", "far fall-out" and "airborne". "Near fail-out" is defined as the deposition in the immediate surroundings of the emission soureps (rpadways; stationary sources). "Far fail-out" is defined as that away from the emission sources, but within the geographic,area (20-200 km). Small particles which are subject to long-rahgei atmospheric transport! and are ultimately deposited elsewhere are designated as "airborne". Acctifdincj ,to data of Huntzicker et al, (1975) on the distribution of lead emissions from motor vehicles' id top j_os Arigpies1 basin, about 55 per cent of the emitted lead can be attributed to the category of "ne/tkr faii-but"', 10 per cerit to "far fall-out" and 35 per cent to "airborne". in rural'areas of Europe and North America, the annual deposition rates (wet and dry) are typically in the range of 20-80 jj.g/m'Vday. Although there are very few aata available, if. appears that in less industrialized areas,of the world the lead deposition rates arp considerably lower, in Greenland and klie1 Antarctic, values below 1 jxg/mz/day have been recorded. In large cities the deposition rates'are ,about 1:5-10 times higher than in rural areas. Trends in concentrations of lead in rainwater are reflective of those for lead in air. In a study in Minnesota, average concentrations' of lead in rainwater fell from 2S to 4.3 fig/i at an urban site and from 5.7 to 1.5 jig/i at alrural site between 1979 and 1983, correlating cioseiy with decreased use, of lead in gasoline (Eisenreich et al., 1986). Valenta et ai. (1986) found between about 15 and about 50 lead2*/! rain in !the former Federal Republic of Germany, and a wet 72 DUP040006564 Tables 2.2- Estimated Worldwide Anthropogenic Emissions1 of Lead to the Atmosphere (1983) Source category Emi^ion rate (thousand tonnes) Coal combustion electric utilities industry and domestic Oil combustion - electric utilities industry and domestic Pyrometaliurgical non-ferrous metal production mining lead production copper-nickel production zinc-cadmium production Secondary non-ferrous metal production Steel and iron manufacturing Refuse incineration municipal sewage sludge Phosphate fertilizers Cement production Wood combustion Mobile sources1 Miscellaneous Total Median value * 0.78-4.65 0.99-9.90 0,23-1,74 0.72-2.15 1.70-3.40 11.7-31.2 11.0-22.1 5.52-11.5 0.09-1.44 1.07-14.2 1.40-2.80 0,24-0.30 0.06-0.27 0.02-14.2 1,20-3.00 248.03 3.90-5.10 289-376 332 1 Current (1992) estimates for such emissions would be considerably lower given the reduction in the use of tetraethyl lead that has occurred since 1983, According to the international Lead and Zinc Study Group, worldwide (excluding Economies in Transition and China) use of lead in the production of tetraethyl lead had declined to 68 000 tonnes in 1992. Approximately 75 per cent of this amount would be emitted to the atmosphere, with the remaining 25 per cent being deposited in the engine oil and tailpipe (US EPA, 1986). Source: Adapted from Nriagu and Pacyna (1988). 71 DUP040006565 tend to be very low, and normally well below 10 pg/l. When point source inputs of lead enter a river, downstream concentrations may be appreciably elevated. it is not only the concentration of lead in the effluent which influences the final concentration in the river, but also the relative flow rates of the effluent stream and river and the effluents may have an appreciable impact on, water quality. Storm runoff waters, especially from roadways and other paved areas, may contain appreciable levels of lead in excess of 400 pg/I (Harrison et at., 1985) and these may cause significant incremental poiiution of surface wafers where dilution capacities are limited. Alexander and Smith (1988) have reported trends in lead concentrations in major rivers in the United States. At about one -third of sites, declines in dissolved lead concentrations were statistically significant. This was attributed primarily to reduced usage of leaded gasoline. Fpr example, the Potomac River in Washington, D.C. showed a decline in dissolved lead from 5 to 2.5 pg/l between 1974 and 1985. Infiltration of re irrwaier into groundwaters and entry into aquifers normally involve passage through soil. Rainwater '.an contain appreciable concentrations of lead. These, however, diminish on passage through tt,e soil, as lead binds to soil minerals and humus. Groundwaters therefore norma.ly contain very io w concentrations of lead, typically below ID jxg/I> Coastal wafers are subject to appreciable inputs both from rivers and from sources such as sewage sludge dumping, sewage outfalls and atmospheric deposition. Because of limited dispersal rates, concentrations of lead in coastal waters closely reflect riverine inputs containing lead from areas of mineralization, as weli as from industrial, automotive and domestic sources, in general, seawater concentrations observed are below those of river waters. In the remote ocean, seawater has no immediate aquatic inputs of lead and only a modest input from the atmosphere. Due to very long residence times, suspended solid concentrations are very iow. For these reasons iead concentrations are extremely iow, much less than 1 jig/l. 2.3.1 Physico-chemical Speciation The most important forms of lead in environmental waters are: free and solvated lead ions and ion pairs (highly mobile and available); organic complexes with dissolved humus materials of a wide range of molecular sizes (binding is rather strong and limits availability); lead attached to colloidal particles such as iron oxide (strongly bound and less mobile when available in this form than as free or solvated ions); and lead attached to solid particles of clay, or to dead remains of organisms (very limited mobility and availability). The identification of different physico-chemical species of lead is very difficult and currently an area of much research activity, in; acidic waters, lead is more likely to be present as free or solvated ions and son pairs, and to be both mobile and available for uptake, in less acidic environments, it will tend to form one of the less available species and may precipitate to the bottom of a river, lake or sea. Thus, acidic lead-bearing effluents are normally neutralized or made alkaline before discharge, so as to precipitate the leacl'and reduce its mobility. Once lead enters a watercourse, it will progressively adjust its speciation to reflect the conditions of the water (Laxen and Harrison. 1983). Since most surface waters are neutral or alkaline, iead will tend to associate with less mobile physico-chemical forms. An exception is mine drainage water, which can be 74 DUP040006566 deposition of about 30 y.g ieacf7rn2/day in rural regions, 50 pg !eada7m2/day in urban areas, and 100-150 jig leada7m2/day in regions with metallurgical industry, varying with time and having in general a decreasing tendency, i Deposition rates of lead can be very high near point sources of the metal. For example, in Wollongong, Australia, a value of 4.7 kg/ha/y was measured at a distance of 100 m from a copper smelter by Beavington (1977), while an extremely high deposition rate of 30 kg/ha/yr was found near a lead works in the United Kingdom by Turner et al. (1980). 2.3 Lead in Water Lead is a natural, usually very minor constituent of surface and ground waters. Nriagu t and Pacyna (1988) estimated, for 1983, inputs of 97 000-180 000 tonnes per year of lead td; aquatic ecosystems worldwide from sources such as industrial wastes, effluents from mining, smelting, refining, manufacturing processes, atmospheric fall-out, and dumping of sewage sludge. Atmospheric fall-out represents oyer half of the total. In this context, it is considered that the tota! annual input of lead to aquatic ecosystems has declined since 1983, given toe reduction that has occurred1 in lead emissions from mobile sources, it is important to emphasize that point sources of discharge, although not of great worldwide importance, may have large local impacts. In contrast, the giobaiiy important atmospheric deposition is spread over vast areas of ocean and may have little locai impact. Lead deposited from the atmosphere can enter aquatic systems through direct fall-out or through erosion of soil particles. In genera!, there is little correlation between lead concentrations in rain and snow and concentrations in streams that drain watersheds. Lead tends to be immobilized by the organic component in soil and remains bound to the soil, thus inhibiting migration to groundwater. Lead entering a river is rather rapidly transported to the sea. in the course of downstream dispersion, some iead may be removed by transfer to sediments on the river bed. During periods of high flow, some of this deposited lead may become resuspended and enter toe water in suspended solids. Water in lakes and reservoirs is not subject to such energetic processes, and transfer is likely to be solely out of the water column. For marine waters, inputs from rivers, sea outfalls and the atmosphere are dispersed and diluted by mixing with cleaner sea water from deep ocean areas. Lead also tends to precipitate in the rather alkaline 'waters of the sea, and will deposit into sediments on the sea bed. In estuarine zones, where freshwater and sea water mix, enhanced precipitation of lead into estuarine sediments, or occasionally removal of sediment to the sea, may occur, In general, lead decreases in concentration from rainwater (generally acidic; about 20 pg/1 lead) to freshwater (generally neutral; about 5 pg/i lead) to sea water (alkaline; below 1 pg/l lead). In the course of this decreasing concentration gradient, iead is removed to bottom sediments which provide a long-term sink in which the metal is stored in a relatively unavailable form. Concentrations of iead in rivers are mainly dependant upon local source inputs, as residence times , are short. The local geochemistry may also be important, in areas of lead mineralization, rivers can contain iead concentrations as much as ten times higher than in unmineralized areas, in areas without lead mineralization, background levels of iead in the water 73 annua! input of lead to soils has declined since 1983, given the reduction that has occurred in lead emissions from mobile sources. Appreciable inputs to land arising from mine tailings and smelter wastes nearly equal all olher sources combined. Nriagu and Pacyna (1988) calculated that uniform dispersion over a cultivated land area of 16 x 1G1* square metres wouid result in an application of lead to soil of around 50 g/ha/yr. It should be noted that inputs are not uniform, and that lead enhancement in soil is most marked in the vicinity of specific industrial and mining activities and in urban areas. However, such local and regional contamination occurs orr a frequent enough basis to make the problem of soil lead contamination of widespread interest. ^ Concentrations of lead in soil range widely, depending on the nature of the parent material, land use, and* location in relation to deposition from industrial, automobile and urban emissions. This is illustrated by data compiled for over 1500 agricultural soils from England and Wales {Archer and Hodgson, 1987) in which the highest lead contents are in areas contaminated by historical mining and'smelting. Regional patterns of lead in the surface environment have been cleariy shown by published geochemical maps, such as that in the Woifeon Geochemical Atlas of England arid Wales (We'bb et ai., 1978) and a similar German geochemical atlas. Both atlases focus on areas with elevated lead levels due to mining smelting and other industrial activities. In Britain alone it has been estimated that some 4000 square miles are affected by historical mining and smelting (Thornton, 1980). Typical values for "uncontaminated" rural soils have been reported as 15-106 pg/g, with a geometric mean of 42 pg/g in the UK {Davies, 1983) and from 2780 soils a geometric mean of 48 pg/g in England (McGrath, 1986). In comparison, Holmgren et al. (1983) reported values for over 3000 surface soils from cropland in the United States, where the median concentration of lead was 11 pg lead/g and1 the mean 18 pg/g. it may be concluded that the relatively high values found in the United Kingdom compared with those in the United States indicate widespread low-level contamination over the centuries of industrial and metallurgical activity. Several investigations have provided clear evidence of elevated lead concentrations in urban soils compared with those in rural and agricultural situations, in the United States, a study of city parks (where children are likely to be in contact with soil) recorded soil lead levels of between 200 and 3300 pg/g (US EPA, 1989). A comprehensive survey of lead in urban garden soils from 53 representative towns and city boroughs in the United Kingdom confirmed elevated concentrations of lead in .surface garden soils, compared with agricultural soils (Culbard et al., 1983). Lead concentrations ranged from 13 pg/g to 14 100 pg/g (geometric mean 230 pg/g) in locations excluding London and areas affected by mining and smelting. In seven London boroughs, theme'an value was 654 pg/g lead. Garden soils in lead mining villages in Derbyshire ranged from 1180 to >20(000 pg lead/g (geometric mean 5610 pg/g), and would seem to pose a special "geochemical hotspot" problem in terms of environmental exposure of local populations. A major mephanism of soil and sediment contamination is atmospheric deposition of lead (Nriagu, 1978a; Nrjjagu dnd Pacyna, 1988). The concentration of lead in soils near highways is related to traffic ddrfsity,,local meteorological conditions, vegetation and topography, in general, lead concentration^| decrease with distance from the highway and with depth in the soil column (Nriagu, 1978a). Lead doil concentration is greatest within 10 metres of the road and within the top one to five centimetres (US EPA; 1989). 76 DUP040006568 strongly acidic and can sustain high concentrations of dissolved lead. Mine effluent can, however, be treated by lime neutralization to control the discharge of contaminants. 2.3.2 Lead in Drinking Water Water for potable supplies is normally derived from surface freshwater or groundwater sources, which in most cases have a lead content of less than 10 pg/1. Water treatment prior to distribution does not normally add to this amount, and usually reduces the lead content (often by^ as much as 50 per cent). In the United Kingdom, it has been concluded that nearly all the lead in tapwater is derived from sources of.contamination in domestic pipes and storage tanks. Mains water is virtually free from lead (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 1983). Concentrations of lead in UK drinking water were the subject of an extensive survey in 1975-78 (Department of the Environment, 1977). This survey revealed higher concentrations in first draw samples than in well flushed, daytime samples. Lead concentrations even in the latter kind of sample were well in excess of those in water leaving the treatment works. Many first draw .water samples (i.e water which has stood in the pipe overnight) show concentrations in excess of 50 or even 100 jag/1. This problem arises from the leaching of lead from the distribution system and domestic pipework and lead-containing fittings and faucets: a process known as plumbosoivency (DeMora and Harrison, 1984). It is particularly acute where lead pipes are used. The most plumbosolvent are soft, addle waters; these are now treated with lime tc neutralize the acidity prior to entering the distribution system. Very hard waters can also be plumbosolvent, and these are dosed with orthophosphate at the treatment works to reduce the solublility of lead (Sheiham and Jackson, 1981). Average iead levels in drinking water in the United States ranged between 10 and 30 pg/l, but the combination of dorresive water (i.e. soft or acidic) and lead pipes or lead soldered joints in distribution systems or houses created localized zones of high lead concentrations up to 380 pg/l (US EPA, 1989c). The combination of new solder and corrosive water can result in even larger concemrations. 2.4 l*ea$inSiJ in rural and remote areas, lead In soil is derived mainly from natural .geological sources and lead concentrations reflect those of the underlying bedrock or transported parent materia!. Some rocks, such as marine black shales, may contain up to 200 p.g/g lead (see Section 2,1). Phosphates can also be particularly rich in lead, with phosphorites containing on average 50 jxg lead/g (Nicheiatti, 1992; Aitschuier, 1980). Where soils are derived from mineralized rocks, natural concentrations may range from several hundred to several thousand pg/g lead. As lead accumulates in soil, where it is relatively immobile and has a long residence time, present-day amounts of lead in surface soils largely reflect anthropogenic inputs arising from industrial, urban and agricultural activities. Nriagu and Pacyna (1988) have estimated that the inputs worldwide for 1983 total 479 000-1 113 000 tonnes per year (Table 2.3). They show important sources of iead arising from atmospheric fall-cut, the disposal of commercial products, fly ash from the coal burning power industry, and urban refuse. It is considered that the total 75 DUP040006569 A typical picture of lead accumulation in soils along a highway is demonstrated in a study in Belgium by Deroanne-Bauvin et. ai. (1987). Lead was enriched in a relatively narrow zone along either side of the road, and its distribution was shown to be influenced by the distance from the road, duration of exposure, traffic density, climatic conditions, profile of the road, and state of growth of vegetation. Lead concentrations associated with stationary sources are dependent cn rate of release from. so^|l|!PlfffIidf^ exponentially downwind of a point source (Mriagu, 1978a, b). Concentrations are usually highest within three kilometres of a point source (US EPA, 1989). v There are numerous published results showing elevated concentrations of lead and other metals close to and downwind of industrial smelting and refining operations in the United States. Typical results are,given in Table 2.4. Table 2.4 Meta! Concentrations in Surface Soils Adjacent to an industrial Smelting Complex ice from stack (km) 0.65 1.3 4.0 7.3 control Soil lead (pg lead/g) 1525 925 190 85 16 Source; US EPA (1979). Soil contamination can arise as a result of the mining, storage and transport of the mineral ores and from associated waste materials such as tailings and spoil heaps. Colbourn and Thornton (1978) found high concentrations of lead in agricultural soils of a historical mining district in the United Kingdom, ranging from several hundred to Several thousand jig lead/g over about 250 km2. Contamination of mine-soils has been reported from several other parts of the world, including Italy (Leita et a!., 1988), Continuous applications of sewage sludge to land results in an accumulation of lead in soil. The lead content of sludges is very variable and depends on the amounts of industrial effluents and waste incorporated. Typical sludges contain <1000 pg iead/g. Every effort is now made to lower lead content to meet the requirements of legislation. Soil receiving heavy sludge applications over a long period was found to contain 425 fig lead/g compared with 47 jig lead/g in an unsludged soil (Beckett et ai., 1979), The possibility that lead might accumulate in crop plants to dangerous levels has led to several countries drawing up guidelines for sludge use. For example, in the United Kingdom a maximum waste permissible concentration for lead in soils of 300 mg/kg dry solids after application of sewage sludge has been established, along with an 78 DUP040006570 Table 2.3 Worldwide Emissions1 of Lead into Soils (1983) (kg x 10) Source category Agricultural and food wastes Animal wastes, manure Logging and other wood wastes Urban refuse Municipal sewage sludge Miscellaneous organic wastes including excreta Solid wastes, metal manufacturing Coal fly ash, bottom fly ash Fertilizer Peat (agricultural and fuel use) Wastage of commercial products Atmospheric fall out 1.5-27 3.2-20 6.6-8.2 18-62 2,8-9.7 0.02-1.6 4.1-11 45-242 0.42-2.3 0.45-2.0 195-390 202-263 Total Input to soils 479-1113 Mine tailings 130-390 Smelter slags and wastes 195-390 Total discharge on land 808-1893 1 Current estimates (1992) would be lower, given the reduction that has occurred in airborne emissions of lead from mobiie sources. Many of these emissions are localized due to the nature of the particulate matter. Source: Nriagu and Pacyna (1988). 77 DUP040006571 and soil, and that this relationship exists for a wide range of uncontaminated and contaminated soils (Davies and Thornton, 1989). At higher soil lead levels, however, plant uptake has been found to decline with increasing soil lead concentrations and a, curvilinear relationship has been reported. There is general agreement that only a small proportion of the lead in soil is available for uptake by plants (Davies and Thornton, 1989). The amount cf lend absorbed bv plan:? depends not only on the total lead content of the soli, but else on its chemical form, rcr f/smoie, lloway and Morgan (1986) found that lead in soils cc '.'amir.tod incrcsrlc fcuro.r. -ur.i, pr- metalliferous mining and smelting, tended.to be more readily accumulated by vegetables than that from soils amended with sewage sludge. Many researcher.', have attorn erfed to ;retict the uptake of lead by plants using soil extra" to,-,to &s rime ac.o, ar.-ro-.-iiuni calcium chloride and others, in .addition to extr-cotftr.l lype. tontors c ich so oc-ii uropori'r," and plant species have also been shown to affept the prediction cf plant concentrations (Adriano, 1986). Attempts so far have met with limited suenes primarily because roia'weiy little h Imown about which factors control the availability of metals ethic- roct-so*i interface. Encuof is known, however, to suggest that empirical relationships that attempt io relate rrs'al uotake directly ?o soil concentrations need to take into account soil pH, organs. matter contenf and major ion status (Da^es ei a!., 1987). Soil pH is one of the most important factors effacing the scubility, mobility and bioavaiiabiiity of lead (Adriano, 1986). Other soil factors influencing the bioavaiiabiiity of lead include cation exchange capacity, brgan(c| :M other elements ihciucting tliehutrients phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen and the heailry metal cadmium. Plan* eprev.1 d.flrv '"f'eiy !n iheir ability to absorb, accumulate and tolerate lead. For example, f >iowey and f forgar, (198*1' found iSiot of all soil types, the percentage accumulation was higher m thp 'r-pfy r.xpe. lettuce ar.d cobbpge, than in the root crops,,; radish and carrot. Phytoio <'c:ty n ay coo jr tor r,"/-grass or oaoithes if grown in limonitic soils containing more than 20C pg ieao/g or ^enoy soil with te'-fcer. 150 to 00 pg lead/g (Gomez, 1982; Nichelatti, 1992). In addiiion. ,liere is lirto dcuor thi -esc of e.modphpric origin can contribute significantly to the iead contc-nt cf field crops; (ChcV iIm- Ir-.'r., 10SI; Even in rural regions of Denmark, ae,riaily derived lead has conn snc'n io account ;cr 90 G9 per cent of the lead found in grass'(Tjell et al., 1979). However, the cogree to whi-m lead oc-posiloo on plant foliar surfaces is aetdaiiy absorbed by the plant arid subsequent!/ translocated within it is stii! a matter for debate. A proportion,, typical!'/ around 50 per cent, of the lead content of vegetables and fruit crops can be rembved by washing, f^uch bf the remainder is incorporated into the cuticle and ceil walls of the leaves or peel. It appears that much of the1 lead deposited on the leaves may be present ,as, aflp||:>ifi ti|blba$|!'bf foot craps, the important of aerially derived lead tb'the lead content of their edible portion is probably slight, whereas in, leafy crops it may be mdre important, particularity in areas of high atmospheric iead deposition. 80 UP040006572 average annua! rate of addition of lead amounting to 15 kg/ha calculated over a ten-year period, in Germany, the lead content of sludge should not exceed 900 pg/g dry sludge and, if soil contains >100 jjg iead/g, sludge should not be applied. There is, however, a genera! conclusion that lead in soil derived from applied sludge has only low availability to plants. House paint containing lead can significantly contribute to concentrations of lead in soils. The US Department of1 housing and lilrban Determent (1990) estimated that flp p^r cent of privately owned housing units have sot! lead levels; above EPA guidelines of 500 pg/g, whiig 27 per cent of public housing units with lead-based paint have soils exceeding guidelines. 2.4.1 Chemical Species of Lead in Soils The main components of lead in soil are the soil solution, the absorption surfaces of the clay-humus exchange complex, precipitated forms, secondary iron and manganese oxides and alkaline earth carbonates! the soil humus and silicate lattices. For example, kaoiinitic clay can absorb up to 2500 pg lead/g (Wedepool, 1970; Michelatti, 1992). Soil solution is the immediate source of lead for plant roots. The results of analysing soil solutions derived from leadcontaminated soils reported by Gregson and Ailoway (1984) show that only a very small portion of the soil lead is present in solution. However, the concentrations reported are some 1000 to 100 000 times higher than those recorded for non-contaminated soils. In heavily polluted soils, part of the lead was present as a high molecular weight organo-lead complex and the proportion represented, by this form yvas greater in soils of higher pH. From acid soils cationic forms of lead were predominant, accounting for as much as 95 per cent of lead in solution. In a carbonate-rich soil neutral species predominated (Ailoway et al., 1984). The level of lead in soils (as well as in water) is controlled by lead carbonate across the whole range of pH. In very acidic soil the controlling role of phosphate appears predominant, whereas in a reducing medium, like that provided by wetlands, sulphide conrols the lead concentration (Nrlagu, 1984). While many metals are converted to organic forms by micro-organisms in soil, there is little evidence to suggest that the natural production of methylated lead has any general environmental significance. It has been suggested that acidification of the surface environment may influence the chemical species of metals present, their transport pathways and cycling (Ward, 19.85). There is as yet no evidence that acid precipitation is influencing the chemistry and transport of lead in the soil environment. Recent studies in an old lead mining district in central England, in which some garden soils contain one per cent or more of lead, have shown that long-term weathering of the lead ore galena (PbS) has resulted in the formation of pyromcrphite, a stable soil-lead mineral with an extremely low solubility and thus low bioavailabiiity (Cotter-Howelis and Thornton, 1991). The presence of this mineral was used to explain the norma! blood lead concentrations in young children exposed to these heavily contaminated soils. 2,4,2 Lead Availability and Uptake into Plants Although various soil parameters can affect the availability of lead, the total amount of the element present is one of the major factors affecting the lead content of plants. It has been found by many workers that there is a positive linear relationship between lead concentrations in plant 79 DUP040006S73 T 200 pg/ft2 on the floor, 500 pg/ft* on the window sills, and 800 jxg/ft2 on window weils (US HUD, 1S9G). A 1990 HUD study estimated that 10.7 million homes had dust levels exceeding one or more HUD guidelines, and that 1 million had concentrations exceeding HUD guidelines on the floor, where children are most likely to come into contact with dust (US HUD, 1990). in the UK Nations! Surrey of Metals in Dusts and Soils fCulbard et el.. 1988), a highly signifiesrst relationship *ve^ found boi-ccr. kod ;wv;nirei`T.-: !n h:iu diuis ond gar'jen soils, though here - as rno-c lead in house dust than in surface coll, indi-'.'Jinn file irrf.'.risnc*--.;.{internal sources such as paint. In this study it was proposed that around 25 per cent of indoor dust originated from garden soil. s' There is general agreement that, in many cases, local lead contamination of the outdoor environment, around bdth primary arid secondary lead smelters and lead processing plants, results in enhanced lead concentrations in dusts within the home. 82 DUP040006574 2.4.3 Lead intakes by Grazing Animals Grazing animals such as sheep, cattle and horses can ingest large quantities of soil. In Winter, when thb seji! isll(wet and1 the herbage, is short, cattle and sheep may ingest up to 30 per cent of their dietary intake of dry matter as soil (Thornton and Abrahams, 1931). Because many sods contain up to several thousand pg lead/kg, these animals will normally have much higher intakes of lead than non-herbivorous animals. In areas of previous metalliferous mining and smelting, it has been demonstrated that the largest proportion of total lead intake by grazing livestock was acquired directly by the involuntary ingestion of lead-contaminated soil. Dust The general consensus is that the results from numerous investigations over the past two decades point to the presence of elevated (ead concentrations in dust, both external to and within the home. Exposure to lead in dusl can occur through ingestion, especially likely in children, or inhalation of resuspended dust. Deposition of airborne lead from leaded gasoline combustions and stationary sources such as smelters are the major contributes to dust lead ir the outdoor environment. An additional major source of lead in dust is the peeling and flaking of lead-based paint. Lead in dust is found primarily as suiphate, along with small amounts of oxide and halide salts (US EPA 1989). The lead particles are usually large, ranging between 40 and 1000 pm (US EPA, 1989). Unlike lead that is incorporated into soils, lead in surface dusts is mobile and will decrease with declining input, precpitation, wind, and street and housecieaning. Typical lead levels in street dust in the United States range from 80-130 pg/g in rural settings to 100-5000 pg/g in urban settings (US EPA, 1989). House dust ranges from 50-500 pg/g in rural settings to 50-3000 pg/g in urban settings to 100-20 000 pg/g near point sources of lead such as smelters, A 1981 study of roadway dust in the United Kingdom found lead levels in urban street dust to average between 1000 and 4000 pg/g, while rural street dust contained lead concentrations of 440 pg/g (Harrison et al., 1985). An extensive study of household dust in the UK in 1981 and 1982 found a. geometric mean of lead concentration in house dust of 561 pg/g, with around 10 per cent of homes exceeding 2000 pg/g (Thornton et ai., 1990). The geometric mean for house dust in London exceeded 1000 pg/g. in a subsequent investigation, the concentration of house dust in 1985 in the city of Birmingham was found to be 424 pg/g. Both of the UK sampling efforts were conducted before mandated reductions of iead in gasoline, so current concentrations may well be lower. An environment survey conducted by the German Ministry for Environment in 1991 showed a median lead content in indoor dust (dust deposit, element concentration in the dust bag of a vacuum cleaner) of 0.42 pg iead/mz/day. Where the neighbourhood was of the apartment block type without green areas, inhabitants were found to be exposed to higher dust deposits, containing almost ail elements investigated, than inhabitants of areas with iess compact construction and more green areas. As discussed above, the presence of lead-based paint in dwellings is also associated with dust and soil levels in dwellings. The US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) guidelines state that dust concentrations in homes should not exceed a clearance level of 81 DUP04000B575 i Davies, D.J., Thornton, !.. Watt, J.M., Culbard, E., Harvey, P.G., Delves, H.T., Sherlock, J.C., Smart, G.A., Thomas, J.F.A. and Quinn, M.J. {1987). "Relationship between blood lead and lead intake in two year old urban children in the UK." in: Heavy Metals in the Environment, New Orleans, eds. S.E. Lindberg and T.C. Hutchinson, CEP Consultants, Edinburgh, 2:203-205. De Mora, S.J. and Harrison, R.M. (1984). "Lead in tapwater: contamination and chemistry." Chem. Brit, 20:900-906. Department of the Environment (Publ. 1977). Lead in drinking water. A survey in Great Britain. 1975-76. Pollution Paper No. 12, HMSO. Deroanne-Bauvin, J., Dekarte, E. and Impeus, R. (1987). "Monitoring of lead near highways: a ten year study." Sci. Tot. Environ., 59:257-266. ESsenreich, S.J., Metzer, N.A., Urban, HR. and Robbins, J.A. (1986). Environ, Sci. Technol, 20: 171-174. Graziano, J., Popovac, D., Factor-Litvak, P., Shrout, P,, Kline, J., Murphy, M., Zhao, Y., Mehmeti, A., Ahrnedt, X., Rajovic, B., Zvicer, Z.f Nenezic, D., Loiacono, N. and Stein, Z. (1990). "Determinants of elevated biood lead during pregnancy in a population surrounding a lead smelter in Kosovo, Yugoslavia." Environmental Health Perspectives, 89:95-100. Gregson, S.K. and Alloway, B.J. (1984). "Gel permeation chrpmatography studies on the speciatiori of lead in solutions of heavily polluted soils." Journal ofSoil Science, 35;55-6i. Habibi, K. (1973). "Characterisation of particulate matter in vehicle exhaust," Environ. Sci, Technol., 7:223-234. Harrison, R.M., Johnston, W.R., Ralph, J.0. and Wilson, SJ. (1985), "The budget of lead, copper and cadmium for a major highway," Sol Tot Environ., 46:137-145. Harrison, R,M. and pttiey, C.J. (1990). Unpublished data. Harrison, R.M. and Williams, C,R. (1982). "Airbom cadmium lead and zinc at rural and urban sites in North-west England," Atmos. Environ., 16:2669-2681. Hirsehier, DA, Gilbert, L.F., Lamb, F,W. and Niebyiski, L,M. (1975). "Particulate lead compounds in automobile exhaust gas." ind. Eng. Chem., 49:1131-1142. Holmgren, G.G.,, Meyer, M.W., Daniels, R.B., Kubota, J. and Chaney, R.L. (1983). "Cadmium, lead, zinc, copper and nickel in agricultural soils of the United States." Agronomy Abstracts, 33. Laxen, D.P.H. and Harrison, B.M, (1983), "The physio-chemical speciation of selected metals in the treated effluent of a lead-acid battery manufacturer and its effect on metal speciation in the receivihg water." Water Res., 17:71 -80. Leita, L., Nobifi, M. de and Sequi, P. (1988). "Content of heavy metals in soils and plants hear Gave dpi Preail, Udine, Italy." Agrochimica, 32:94-97. 84 DUP040006576 GiflER^I-.RipfilllflOIS pRT6R 2) Adriano, D.C. (1986). Trace Elements in the Terrestrial Environment. Springer-Verlag, New York. Alexander, R.B. and Smith R.A. (1988). "Trends in lead concentrations in major US rivers and their relation to historical changes in gaso!ine-!ead consumption." Water Resources B.,, 24:557. Ailoway, B.J., Tills, A.R. and Morgan, H. (1984). "The speciation and availability of cadmium and lead iri polluted soils." Univ. of Missouri, 18th Trace Substances in Env. Health Conference, Columbia. Archer, F.C. and Hodgson, L.H. (1987). "Total and extractable trace element contents of soils in England and Wales." Journal of Soil Science, 38:421-432. Beckett, P.H., Davis, R.D. and Brindley, P. (1979). "The disposal of sewage sludge onto farmland: the scope of the problem of toxic elements." Water Pollution Control, 78:419-436. Bennett, R.L. and Knapp, K.T. (1989). "Characterisation of particulate emissions from non-ferrous smelters." JAPCA -- J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc., 39:169-174. Biggin, P.D.A. and Harrison, R.M. (1979), "Atmospheric chemistry of automotive lead." Environ, Sci. Techno!., 13:558-565. Carroll, J.D. (1987). Survey of airborne lead concentrations in the vicinity of the works of Capper Pass Limited, North Fernby, North Humberside. No. LR 602 (AP)M, Chamberlain, A.C. (1983). "Fallout of lead and uptake by crops," Atmospheric Environment, 17: 693-706. Chamberlain, A.C., Heard, M.J., Little, P. and Wiffeo, R.D. (1979). "The dispersion of lead from motor exhausts." Phil, Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A290,577-589. Colboum, P. and Thornton, I . (1978), "Lead pollution in agricultural soils." Journal of Soil Science, 29:513-526 Cotfer-Howells, J. and Thornton, !. 41991), "Sources and Pathways of Environmental Lead to Children in a Derbyshire Mining Village." Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 13 (2): 127, Cuibard, E.B., Thornton, L., Watt, J.M., Wheatley, M., Moorcroft, S. and Thompson, M. (1988). "Metal contamination in British urban dusts and soils," Journal of Environmental Quality, 17:226-234. Davies, B.E (1983) "A graphical estimation of the normal lead content of some British soils." Geoderma, 29:67-75. Davies, B.E, and Thornton, I. (1989), Pathways of lead into food. International Lead Zinc Research Organization, 104 pp. 83 DUP040006577 US Department of Housing and Urban Development (1990). Comprehensive and Workable Plan for the Abatement ofLead-Based Paint in Privately Owned Housing: Report to Congress. Washington, D.C. December, US EPA (1979). "Criteria for classification of solid waste disposal facilities and practices." Federal Register, M,5343S-53468. US EPA (1989). Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards forlead: exposure analysis meihc'ddlogy and validation. Office of Air Qualify Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. June. Wiffen, R.D. (1977). "Emission and deposition of petrol engine exhaust Pb: deposition of exhaust Pb to plant and soil surfaces." Atmos. Environ., 11:437-447. Wood, J:M. (1985), "Effects of acidification on the mobility of metals and metalloids. An overview." Environ. Health Perspect., 63:115-120. 86 DUP040Q06S78 McGrath, S.P. (1986). "The range of metal concentrations in topsoils of England and Wales in relation to soil protection guidelines." In: Trace Substances in Environmental Health XX, ed. D.D. Hemphill, University of Missouri, Columbia, pp. 242-252. Nichelatti, M. (Ministry of the Environment, France) (1992). Facsimile to Dr. J. Buccini (lEnvifon'rne'tif feapada), re: commits! dp ihe draft OECD Risk Reduction Strategy Document for Lead. December. , Nriagu, J.O. (1978a). "Lead in soils, sediments, and major rock groups." In: Biogeochemistry'of Lead in the Environment Part A, Ecological Cycles, ed. J.O. Nriagu. Elsevisr/NorthHolland Biomedical Press, Mew York. Nriagu, J O. (1978b). "Lead in the atmosphere." In: Bicgeochemistry of Leadin the Environment Part A, Ecological Cycles, ed. J.O. Nriagu. Elsevier/Ncrth-Hoiland Biomedical Press. New York. Nriagu, J. and Pacyna, J. (1988). "Quantitative assessment of worldwide contamination of air, water and soiis by trace metals." Nature, 333:134-139. Pacyna, J.M. (1987), "Atmospheric emissions of arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury from high temperature processes in power generation and industry." SCOPE Report No, 31: Lead, Mercury, Cadmium in the Environment, 69-87. Reed, L.E. (1987), Cross-Media Approach to Pollution Control and its incorporation into the Project on Coherent Approaches for Hazardous Substances. Prepared for the OECD Chemicals Group and Management Committee. Paris, June 26, Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1983). Managing Waste: the Duty of Care. 11th Rep. CMND 9675, HMSO, London. Sheiham, i. and Jackson, P.J. (1981). "The scientific basis for control of lead in drinking water by water treatment." Journal of the institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, 35 (6): 4914515. Thornton, I. (1980). "Geochemical aspects of heavy metal pollution and agriculture in England and Wales." in: inorganic Pollution and/kgricuiiure,Mf\T, Reference Book 325, HMSO, London, pp. 105-125. Thornton, I. and Abrahams, P. (1981-). "Role of soil ingestion in the intake of metals by livestock." 15th Ann. Conf. Trace Substance in Environ, Health, Columbia, Missouri, USA. in: Trace Substances in Environ. Health, XV, 366-371. Thornton, I., Davies, D.J.A.. Watt, J.M. and Quinn, M,J. (1990). "Lead exposure in young children from dust and soii in the United Kingdom." Environmental Health Perspectives, 89:55-60. Tjell, J.O., Hovmand, M.F, and Mosbaek, H. (1979), "Atmospheric lead pollution of grass grown in a background area in Denmark." Nature, 280:425-426. Turner, A.C., Killick, C.M. and Barrett, C.F. (1980). The Midlands metal survey: concentrations in the air around factories in Birmingham and the black country (UK). Part 3. Warren Spring Lab., No. LR352 (AP) 85 DUPQ40006579 Figure 19 Pathways of Hutnain Exposure 88 DUP040006580 LtNKA3fe$ TO EXPOSURE 3,1 Introduction The primary routes of human exposure to lead are inhalation and ingestion (of water, food, paint, soil and/or dust). The relative importance pf any single source of exposure is difficult to predict and will vary with geographic location, climate and local geochemistry. Similarly, the intensity of exposure experienced by an individual can vary as a function of age, sex, occupation, socio-economic status, diet and cultural practices. In addition, the amount of lead taken up into;, the body is believed to vary depending on tie concentration and composition (for example, particle" size, chemical form) of the lead inhaled or Ingested, Some countries monitor levels of lead in environmental media, as well as in blood, as a basis for assessing risks of exposure and the effectiveness of measures to reduce these risks. Trend data have also been used to link anthropogenic sources of release to human exposures. However, it should be noted that even strong correlations do not necessarily prove a linkage with a given source, as most countries have taken multiple measures to reduce risks from exposures. The following section briefly describes the pathways of human exposure to lead (see also Figure IS), in Section 3.4, trends in lead concentration in various environmental media (as well as in food and blood) in some OECD countries are examined. The information in that section was received from government agencies, academia and industry. Explanations for variations in trends were sometimes also provided, in some cases, a rise or fall in blood lead levels was linked to changes in demand for specific lead-containing products. This linkage was generally demonstrated by correlating trends for lead in blood and demand for products with trends in the concentration of lead in air, food, etc. The information presented in this chapter is as received. No attempt has been made to correlate data between countries, due to variationS in survey methods and other confounding factors. 3.2 Pathways of Human Exposure 3.2.1 Lead in Paint Lead in paint constitutes a major source of bioavaiiable lead in the environment. Although many OECD countries have banned or restricted the use of lead in interior paints, there remains a hug e reservoir of contaminated materia! in existing structures where leaded paint has been used. Children are especially susceptible to exposure to lead in paint. They may chew on pieces of peeling or flaking paint, or may ingest house dust generated as a result of deterioration of indoor paint, restoration, rehabilitation work, and garden soil contaminated by deteriorated leaded exterior paint. The US HUD (1930) has estimated that 57 million privately owned and occupied homes built before 1980 have lead paint; of these, 9.9 million are occupied by families with children under the age of seven. An estimated 3.8 million homes occupied by young children have deteriorated paint (i,e. peeling or flaking). 87 DUPD40006581 Atmospheric deposition is also another important source of lead in food. In the United Kingdom, deposited lead on soil and crops is estimated to contribute 13 to 31 per cent of the total dietary consumption of iead by children (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Foods, 1989). In the United States, 45 per cent of lead in atypical diet is assumed to originate from depositions (US ERA, 1986). Foods with high surface areas (such as spinach) also tend fo have higher concentrations of iead due to atmospheric deposition. In the UK. a series cf su-v'ye between 1983 and 1987 failed to demonstrate any consistent decline ir, the lend contort of which .might have been associated with the reduction in lead content c` perm! within ihe same period. Cooking food in lead-contaminated water can elevate 'mvJ corcenfrahes in feed. Sherlock (1987) reported that every 10 pg/1 in water increased me lead concentration in cooked vegetables by about 6 pg/kg. Othc" ccu-cer of iead in roods include leaching from ceramic containers in which lead giazes hove b;=n used, contamination of roadside fruits such as blackberries with vehicle-derived lead, uptake of iead from lead-rich urban garden soils into home-grown vegetable crops, and uptake of lead into crops from sewage sludge applied to farmland. 3.2.5 Lead in Water Lead is a natural, usually minor constituent of surface and groundwaters. Anthropogenic Input of iead to aquatic ecosystems can occur from sources such as effluents from mining, smelting, refining and manufacturing processes or the dumping of sewage .sludge and atmospheric fall-out. Lead deposited from the atmosphere can enter aquatic systems through direct fall-out or through erosion of soil particles, in general, there is little correlation between lead concentrations in rain and snow and concentrations in streams that drain watersheds. Lead tends to be immobilized by the organic component in soil and remains bound to the soil. For the same reason, the migration of lead to groundwater is inhibited, in surface water, qualities such as pH and hardness influence lead content. Lead concentrations in drinking water result primarily from lead teaching from water delivery systems (i.e. water mains, connecting pipes and in-house plumbing), and from previously contaminated drinking water sources. Plumbing systems may contain lead pipes, lead soldering, and bronze or brass fittings. Corrosion of these materials, aggravated by water with low pH, and subsequent teaching into the drinking water can contribute significant quantities of lead in systems where these materials are used (US ERA, 1989). The physical and chemical form of lead in water has a strong influence upon its toxicity (P.rosi, 1989). For instance, a dissolved ion of lead is highly mobile and readily transported into the human body if ingested. At the opposite extreme, a large suspended particle of lead sulphide is of low mobility as it wii! rapidly settle out and, if ingested, is very poorly absorbed. 3.2.6 Lead in Air Lead in air can be inhaled or, as previously mentioned, can be deposited in the form of dust on soils, water and food crops. Loading to air can occur from natural emissions (for example, volcanoes, forest fires, etc.) 9nd anthropogenic releases such as gasoline combustion, - coal burning or industrial emissions. 90 DUP040006S82 3.2.2 Lead in Soils/Sediments Lead accumulates in soils and sediments. Loading can occur from both natural sources {for exampie, local geology, volcanic activity, sea spray, forest fires, etc.) and anthropogenic sources such as agricultural and food wastes, logging, urban refuse, municipal sewage sludge, solid wastes, coal ~and fly ash, fertilizer, commercial product wastes and atmospheric fail-out. Lead-based house paint can also significantly contribute to soil concentrations of lead. Children may contact lead-bearing soils during outdoor play; in addition, contaminated soils maybe tracked indoors on shoes, clothing, etc. A major mechanism of soil and sediment contamination Jis atmospheric deposition of lead from gasoline combustion and from stationary sources. Lead is retained in soil in organic complexes or adsorbed to hydrous oxides near the soil surface. The mobility of lead in the soil depends on the soil pH and organic content, in general, lead's relative immobility in soil tends to,decrease its bioavailability to humans and other terrestrial life. However, its immobility also increases its residence time in soils. 3 2.3 Lead m Dust Dust is found both in the home and in the outdoor environment. Exposure to lead in dust can occur through ingestion, especiaiiy likely in children, or inhalation of resuspended dust. Depositions of airborne lead from leaded gasoline emissions and from stationary sources, such as smelters and coal-powered generating stations, are the major anthropogenic contributors of dust lead in the outdoor environment. An additional major source of lead in dust is the peeling and flaking of lead-based paint. Lead in dust is found primarily as sulphate, along with small amounts of oxide and halide salts (US EPA, 1939). Unlike lead that is incoiporated into soils, lead in surface dusts is mobile and is believed to decrease with declining input, precipitation,-wind, or street and housecleaning. Accidental ingestion of dust or soil (dirt) by hand-to-mouth activity is an important source of lead exposure to young children. 3,2.4 Lead in Food The ingestion of food is a major component of most individuals' total lead uptake, although the relative contribution is a function pf one's size, body weight, age and type of diet. The occurrence of lead in the diet may be a result of: a) natural sources of lead; b) deposition of airborre lead particles onto crops, fprage, feed, soils and water; and c) harvesting, processing, transport,, packaging, preparation and storage of food. The concentrations of lead in foods are typically less than 100 pg/kg fresh weight, though certain foods can reach much higher concentrations (Sherlock, 1987; Dabeka and McKenzie, 1987,1988; US EPA, 1989). in the 1980s in the UK, the majority of foods contained less than 50 pg/kg (Sherlock, 1987). Canned foods often have much higher concentrations of lead than foods packaged in another manner. The US EPA estimated that about 42 per cent of lead in food comes from lead spidered cans or other metal sources (US EPA, 1986), though this contribution should now be less. Canned food may absorb substantial quantities of lead from lead solder used to seal the can, especially if the food is at a. low pH. Foods packed in lead soldered cans may have lead levels as high as 100 to 400 pg/ka, or five to 30 times the lead content of frozen or fresh foods (US EPA, 1989), 89 DUP040006583 Figure 20 Lead Concentrations In;,Snow andlee . -Greenland. in# f gifd|fm Lead concentrations (sg'g) Lead in Gaspiind (QOOtonnes) 92 DUP040006584 The health effects of respired lead are dependent upon particle size. A high proportion of inhaled small particles (less than 2.5 pm) is deposited in the deepest alveolar portion of the respiratory system (Hinds, 1982), from which lead is absorbed with almost 100 per cent efficiency into the bloodstream. Particles in the range 2.5 to 10 yum most typically deposit in the tracheobronchial and naso-pharyngea! region, from which they are elevated and swallowed. Absorption of lead through the gastrointestinal tract is far less efficient in adults (8 to 10 per cent) but can be,up to 50 per cent in children. Thus, a large proportion of lead in these sizes does not enter the bloodstream (Chamberlain and Wiffen, 1978). Particles of greater than 10 urn enter thp nose with only low efficiency and do not represent an appreciable inhalation hazard unless present in very high concentrations. Such particles can, however, contribute to the lead content of surface dusts and soils. 3.2.7 Lead in the Workplace Occupational exposures to lead have been noted in various industries, such as inorganic pigments manufacturing; primary and secondary lead metal processing; brass, bronze and copper foundries; battery manufacturing; machinery manufacturing; electronic capacitors manufacturing; auto repair services and garages; bridge, tunnel and elevated highway repairs; stone, glass and day products manufacturing; munitions manufacturing; and firing ranges (Maizlish et. al., 1990). in addition, lead exposures can occur during renovation and abatement of lead-painted homes and other structures. Para-occupational exposures occur when lead in the form of dust is easily carried out of the workplace (on clothing, shoes, etc.) and into worker residences, where spouses and children of lead workers can then be exposed. 3,3 Global Baseline Data Because of regional disparities, there is very little baseline or trend data for lead concentrations in environmental media on a global or long-term scale. However, an attempt has been made to establish historical baseline date on lead concentrations in the atmosphere by analysing core samples of Greenland ice dating back as far as 5500 years before the present. The graph in Figure 20, based on data collected in two studies (see Boutron et al,, 1991}, indicates that concentrations of lead in ice began to increase in the eighteenth century, possibly reflecting the beginning of industrialization. Superimposed on the graph is the trend in demand for lead used in gasoline in OECD countries. These countries account for the majority of the world's production of leaded gasoline. As the graph suggests, there appears to be a correlation between decreased use of lead in gasoline and lower lead concentrations in the ice after 1972. However, the demand for lead In gasoline is shown to have been at its highest in 1972, about 20 years after the highest concentrations of lead in the ice shown here. 91 D U P040006585 3.4.3 Belgium Trend data for the 1980s, where available, indicate that the average levels of lead in air for rural and urban sites have remained relatively constant or have declined, and are well below the maximum permissible level of 2 pg/m3 set in an EC Directive (Figure 27). The average blood lead levels for various segments of the population have steadily declinedijdudih toaiBSOA (Figure 28). The'decline bass been; in (part, Attributed to reductions in the permissible level of lead in gasoline. Trends shown in Figure 28 afso suggest that smokers tend to have higher blood lead levels than non-smokers of the same gender. '' 3,44 panada The average levels of lead in air have steadily declined over the last few decades (Figure 29). The decline has been largely attributed to reductions in the use of lead in gasoline, as lead emissions from other sources (for example, mineral and processing facilities) have remained relatively constant (Figure 30), It should be noted that lead emissions from the lead industry were relatively constant during the 1980s, as the majority of reductions occurred when federal and provincial controls were introduced prior to 1978. The reduction of lead in air since 1987 is, in part, attributed to a decline in lead emissions from gasoline combustion and coppernickel production. The average blood lead levels for the population at greatest risk from exposure (i.e, children) also declined to about 6 pg/dl in 1988, well below the 25 pg/dl ievei of concern which is currently under review (Figure 31). Although there is a strong correlation between blood lead levels in children and air lead levels, it has been suggested that the decline may also be related to other factors such as a voluntary industry phase-out of lead soldered food cans and a decline in the use of lead in indoor paints. 34,5 Finland Use: In Finland, the total use of lead was about 22 650 tonnes in 1990. The greatest portion, 9 500 tonnes, was used by the battery industry. Air: The estimated lead emissions to the atmosphere were 286 tonnes/yr in 1990, pf which 152 tonnes was from motor vehicles. The total emission has decreased by 36 per centfrom the 1983 level, primarily as a result of the decreased use of leaded gasoline. At present, the use of unleaded gasoline is about 70 per cent of the total gasoline use. However, industrial emissions have increased by 19 per cent. The average airborne lead level in Helsinki has declined sharply from 1 pg/nrf in the 1970s to 0 05 pg/m3 in 1990 due to the use of low-lead and unleaded gasoline. In more remote areas, the background concentration of lead in the air is 0.005 pg/m3. Atmospheric lead deposition in toe snowpack during winter in Finland has also been studied, in southern Finland, it was 4.8 pg/i (mean value) and in northern Finland, 2.2 pg/l in 1990. In the 1970s, the lead deposition in Finland was estimated to be 28.4 fng/mz per year. But a recent climatological model study indicates that the lead deposition in southern Finland varies between 4 to 7 mg/m3 per year, and in northern Finland between 1.0 to 2.5 mg/rn4 per year. 94 D U P040006586  j3i#\ Figures 21^58 presenting country data follow this section. 3.4.1 Australia Between 1985 and 1988, lead emissions declined in .al! states and territories, resulting-lb an average reduction of 18 per cent for Australia {Figure 21}, More than 90 per cent of these emissions derive from leaded petrol, and the decline has been attributed first to a reduction in the concentration of lead in petrol in 1983 and, second, to file introduction of unleaded petrol containing 0.013 g/i or iess of lead. Since 1 January 1996, all vehicles, whether manufactured locally or imported, have been required to operate on unleaded petrol. Although overall emissions ` have declined, there are concerns relating to specific point source releases, such as smelters, that regularly exceed recommended guidelines. In Australia's largest capital cities, lead in air levels have declined substantially over the last five to ten years. However, many lead in air levels recorded in recent years were above the National Health and Medical Research Council's recommended maximum of 15 jig lead/m3 (averaged over 90 days) (CEPA 1992). Since 1977, dietary intakes of lead for all segments of the population have declined dramatically and are well below the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake recommended by the WHO (Figure 22). For example, the estimated intake for infants has been reduced by 90 per cent improvements are believed to be the result of changes to food canning technology and the discontinued use of pesticide sprays, based on lead arsenate, in agriculture. Blood lead data indicate that in most localities less than 10 per cent of children have blood lead levels greater than or equal to 25 pg/di. According to aggregated data, the mean blood lead level of exposed workers declined from 40 ug/dl to 30 pg/di between 1986 and 1902, During the same period, the proportion of workers with bicod lead levels greater than or equal to 50 pg/dl also decreased by 71 per cent (Figure 23). 3.4,2 Austria Since 1970, lead emissions from vehicles have been declining while gasoline consumption has risen steadily (Figure 24). It is believed that these opposing trends are a result of the introduction of unleaded fuel and a reduction in the permissible level of lead in leaded gasoline. Figure 25 indicates that the monthly lead uptake from food did not significantly change during the period 1970 to 1988. Blood lead levels for the general population declined slightly, to below 25 jig/d!, between 1972 and 1982 (Figure 26). According to the Ministry for Environmental Conservation and Protection, more recent measurements show that blood lead levels for occupationally exposed individuals average 40 pg/dl, while the range for the general population is between 5 and 25 pg/dl. 93 DUP04Q006587 ws*WtewA-W.i** In 1990, for the first time levels between 50 and 100 jxg/f were more frequently measured than levels above 100 pg/i. Airpollution from automobiles: Emission into air from automobiles is monitored at 24 sites in c* dc.-v:* i-yf.'io- /.ftc* implementation of Directive 82/884/EEC by the Frepctj authorities, tii- umit --'aiue of' pg'm -v f ? nm-er transgressed at any of the sites. One-year averages varied between 0.2 and 1.9 pg/m3. Pollution from industrial souces: The main sectors discharging lead into air and water are non-ferrc us r n icltor t -j.--.nery plants, and plants manufacturing gasoline additives and regenerating spentoiL M '<s <c -Jr mar c-em from iron, steel, copper and bronze smelters, coke production, and municipal waste incinerators. Yearly discharges into water from ten emitting plants warp calculated in the period 19881991: s it !;1''' LOCATION 1 Octei Kuhlmann. 2 Metaieurop 3 Roussel Uclaf 4 Norsk Hydro azote 5 Metaieurop 6 CEEAC 7 SFPO 8 Verreries d'Arques 9 Unimetal Normandie 10 Than & Mulhcuse 44 Paimboeuf 62 Noyelles Godault 69 Neuville sur Seine 76 Le Havre 60 Rieux 59 Milep2 goutogne 62 Arques 14 Mondeviile 76 Le Havre .Wi$Si.ON$ IN KG/IC.J 1991 1990 1989 1988 : .53.5' 40.1 72 18,#' 9.1 84. 662.0 5.0 5.0 4^4 : 5.0; 54 3/t 8.0 4.6 3.4 1.3 2,1 ' 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1,5: 10.0 1.1 1.2 1.6 Limit values for discharges of lead into water and air established by ministerial decrees promulgated between 1985 and 1991 are: surface treatment waste incinerators water 1 mg/! 1 mg/! air 1 mg/m3 5 mg/m3 (Pb, Cu, Cr, Mn) 96 DUP040006583 Water: The discharge cf lead into the aquatic environment was calculated to be 2,9 t/yr. in 1990, which is a decrease of 42 per cent from the estimated value of 5.0 t/yr. in 1980. A recent study on 8 500 water samples from drinking water supply sources revealed that lead concentration in 8 490 of the samples was below 1 pg/l. The remaining ten samples contained about 50 pg/l of lead. Groundwater samples at 56 stations were studied during 1975-1988. The maximum leafl concentration was 80 jig/f with a mean value of 2.8 (xg/i. Snow samples from 54 stations were also analysed between 1976 and 1988. The maximum lead concentration was observed to be 70 pg/1 with a mean value of 4.2 pg/I. The mean lead deposition in snowpack was 1.14 mg/m2 per year, and the range varied between 0.18-, 42.0 mg/m2 per year. Soil: Lead discharged via wastes and other lead-containing materials in soil was estimated to be 5 890 tonnes in 1990. This is an increase of 15 per cent over the estimated discharge for the early 1980s. The lead concentration in Finnish soil generally varies between 15-20 p.g/g, but it can be quite high in industrial and urban areas. The mean lead concentration in cultivated soil was 1.66 mg/I in 1987, which is 16 per cent less than the mean value of 1.98 mg/1 observed in 1974. Foodstuffs, etc.: Dietary intake of lead is 40-60 pg per day. Respiratory air can increase the lead exposure in urban areas by about 5 pg per day (however, absorption via the lungs is greater than via the gastrointestinal tract}. Drinking water is of minima! importance, since lead pipes have not been used in Finland. Lead concentration in drinking water is beiow 1 pg/l. Blcol lead levels: Average blood lead levels have decreased from 11 pg/d! (only men studied) to 2.8 j-ig/di (men and women, N s 200} in 1975-1992. In Helsinki, the average blood lead level of children has decreased from 4.6 to 3,0 pg/dl between 1983 and 1988 (children in day care centres). The maximum level observed was 8.3 pg/dl (N = 35). In the same period, car exhaust emissions of lead decreased by 75 per cent in the capital area. Occupational health: Blood lead concentration for exposed workers has decreased from about 20 pg/di to 14 pg/d! (median values) for men between 1973 and 1982. The highest values have decreased from 120-160 pg/dl to 80-90 jxg/dl among men, and from 100-110 pg/dl to about 50 jig/al among women. 3,4,6 France Surface water: The river authorities monitor the concentration of lead in surface water. Between 1971 and 1986 there was a steady decrease of the proportion of high values over 100 |xg/l and a concurrent increase for the medium values 20 to 100 jig/i. in 1987, monitoring sites were redistributed to include more sites in zones of high risk. This gave a sudden rise in the proportion of measurements of high concentrations for the year 1987. Data obtained after 1987 confirm the previously observed decrease of high concentrations. 95 DU P04000658S Blood lead levels: Blood lead levels in infants monitored by the Centre for the Protection of Mothers and Infants established in the north east of Paris. The data collected between 1987 and 1991 are represented in the following table. They show that 60 per cent of the group of infants studied had blood levels exceeding 15 pg/dl and 10 per cent needed medical care. r |; `Year Swte of Seriousness 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Total per cent < IS ua/dl ffeilfelkfe': '.T 98 k life' ' ,336 t:i: VkfeBi.i k . j &&! k ,1. nfe 15-25 ua/dl 25-50ta/dl. >150 iia/dl kil . Total' 66 feat . 166 123 !' , .ife.' ! ' 359: 22Q k ki&i 62 !: 563 264,, .......... k ii& 62 ii: . . t#i 186 \ ' i.BBiif Ill ' ' 724 = . 656!" . jlifes kall' ::i. ' : ieife 171 per cent "" . .7 14 22 30'` 28 3.4|,j7 Germany The average concentration oflead in air in rural areas has decreased since 1973 and is well below the maximum tolerable amount of 2 p,g/m3 (Figure 32). The reduction has been attributed to the phasing out of lead in gasoline. Between 1972 and 1985, the lead concentration in the clay fraction of sediments in the Rhine and Elbe rivers also declined (Figure 33), Various studies indicate that average blood lead levels in schoolchildren and adults (male and female) have declined since 1975 (Figure 34). The reductions are believed to be a result of the decrease of lead in air. Germany has also phased out the production of lead soldered food cans and prohibited the use of lead-based pesticides and paints, with the exception of anti corrosive paints for industrial repair coatings. 3.4,8 New Zealand The current mean blood level is 7 pg/dl. Lead from paint and food and drink containers are the major sources of the New 'Zealand mean blood level. Petrol lead accounts for 5 per cent. Studies conducted between 1974 and 1984 show that blood lead levels dropped by 40 per cent for adult maies and 35 per cent for adult females and children (Figure 36). This reduction was attributed to the removal of lead from food and drink containers. Leaded petrol consumption was not considered to be a significant factor in the decline of blood lead levels, as it tended to fluctuate within a relatively stable range during the period (Figures 35 and 36). in 1986, the lead content of petrol was reduced from 0.84 g/l to 0.45 g/I but no significant reduction in lead blood level was observed. 98 DUP04QQ06590 A ministerial decree applicable to all hazardous installations is being developed. Already all discharges into groundwater are prohibited. A system of auto-surveillance by Industry imposes daily or weekly monitoring of discharges when these exceed established thresholds. Air pollution by lead from industrial sources is monitored at 38 sites, in general, levels found ere '-'cry low. The only transgression of the established limit value was registered in the vic:n;tj< of a battr.-y plant. Food: The data presented below are based on the results of a monitoring programme conducted in 1978-1979. It was concluded from this study that the average weekly exposures to lead via food are between 25 and 100 per cent of the tolerated weekly dose established by WHO. Type of Fbod bStegery Wine Bread Potatoes Eoos Corned beef Green beans . Sardines Seer Celery Lettuce Green beans Apples Mackerel Sutter Cooked/raw carrots Rice Pure "'ruft juice Fresh tomatoes Tuna Brie/camembert cheeses Breakfast cocoa Suoar i ! Fresh vegetables. Canned food Fresh veoetables , Canned food Fresh veoetables Fresh veoetables Canned food Fresh fruit Canned food Fresh vaaetables ! Fresh veoetables Canned food i Level (ppb) Consumption (mg/hJy) 118 107 51 108 411 189 711 43 ... 129 214 37 705 70 -S3: 140: 141 46 .341 111 369 25 11.80 . . 6.19 3.14 1.10 0 88 0.80 0.7S 0.75 0.73 > 0.73 0.70 0.60 0.56 0.5S 0.55 : 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.46 0.45 0.38 0.37 97 DUP0400065S1 Hlpf The release of lead into the atmosphere is decreasing since 1970 (Figure 43). The reduction can be attributed to the phasing out of leaded gasoline as well as to improvements of the flue gas treatment in municipal wate incinerators. The general population exposure is decreasing since the iast decade. This is shown by the MONICA study (MGNiioring of trends and determinants in CArdiovascuiar disease) in which blood lead'concentration of men and women of different ages were analysed (FOEFL, 1992). , 3.4.12 United Kingdom The levels of lead in various sludges and industrial waste entering the Norte Sea from thje United Kingdom declined significantly during the latter half of the 1980s (Figure 46). Aft explanation for the variations is not provided. Concentrations of lead in air at rural and urban sites have declined. One of tee greatest drops correlates with a 1985-1986 reduction in the maximum permissible level of lead in gasoline from 0.40 to 0.15 g/I (Figures 47 and 48). The average blood lead concentrations for children, as well as adult females and males, also declined steadily during tee mid-1980s, with the average levels being well below the 25 pg/dl level of concern (Figure 49). According to the UK Department of the Environment, the reduction in the permissible level of lead in gasoline during 1985 had a minimal impact on tee already downward trend in blood lead ievels in adults, but did appear to contribute slightly to the decrease of lead in the body burden of children. It was also suggested that the decline reflected a long-term trend that related to several personal, social and environmental factors such as reductions in lead intake from food (Figure 5,0) or water. Two studies in Glasgow and Ayr, Scotland, showed that bottle-fed infants accumulated considerable quantities of lead in response to exposure from lead in water. Since both these studies, tee water suppliers have adjusted the pH of the water to 8 and 8.5to reduce leaching of lead. This resuited in a marked fall in blood lead concentrations in Glasgow mothers (Moore' et a!., 1981) and a drop in water-lead concentration of around 80 per cent in Ayr (Sherlock and Quinn, 1986). 3.4.13 United States During the 1980s, the average annual concentrations of lead in air declined at urban and point source sites and are well below the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of 1.5 pg/m3 (Figure 51). The downward trend has, in part, been related to reductions in emissions from transportation, stationary fuel combustion, industrial, solid waste and other miscellaneous sources (Figure 52). Transportation emissions have dropped by more than 98 per cent since 1970, The decline has been attributed to a decrease in the lead content of leaded gasoline from approximately 2 g/gailon (.528 g/I) in the early 1.97.0s to 0,1 g/gallpn (0,026 g/ij in 1986 (ENVIRON,, 1991). Reductions in emissions at point sources are believed to be related to changes in productivity, process technoiogy and emission control devices. Lead intake from food for various segments of the population, including children, declined during the 1980s (Figure 53). Reasons for the decline range from Improved food preparation, canning and hygiene practices tc reductions in tee level of lead in food crops, which is linked 100 DUP040006S92 3.4.9 Norway The estimated and known discharges of lead to air, water and soil decreased by about 49 per cent between 1985 and 1990, whereas the quantity of lead disposed of to landfill is estimated to have increased by a factor of 4 during the same period (Figure 37). The substantial rise in lead going to landfill has been related to a six-fold increase in disposals from the metallurgical industry. However, the significant decline in lead released to water has been associated with a 98 per cent reduction of iead within metallurgical industry effluent. The decline of iead emitted to air nsf been largely attributed to a reduction in Ihe use of to-artod pe:rn!. ! his r^'ucjlon in `ear.1 r.ini;r tor/ it believed to have resulted in a decrease of lead ii pennito-ion igurr r*1, The ov' e/ct-pTcr, is an unexplained temporary increase in lead deposition ir southern tloway tor 192.'-. \"iih regard to deposition patterns, a study of iead in, moss fourd that the atmospheric deposition of lead in Noway and other Nordic countries decrees ed frem ccufh to north psm.iei to population density and intensity of traffic. The study also irtoni'fieri the tor.o-rs'K.e re nr,port lead from densely populated areas of central Europe as a Blood lead levels ir Nowa/ are considered to be directly related to tfie concentration of lead n air. A cohon study in iSf.3 and 1984 found that, despite low to moderate blood lead conc-.id-rfions. the ir.fosfciton!:. ol & town with moderate traffic pollution had higher blood lead levels than rer.ideri.r of n email town with very little traffic (NILU, 1990). After considering a number of ccnirlbuting factors, it wc* recognised that children exposed to passive smoking and adult smokers had higher blood iead concentrations. It was also noted that as lead in air levels declined the deer*-ace ir; blood load concentration was greater in non-drinkers than in individuals wfop lOd*; 3.4.10 Sweden The levels of lead emitted to air or deposited from air have declined during the last two decades (Figure 39). Overall, the amount, of lead emitted tends to be less than the quantity deposited. The difference may, in part, be attributed to the long-range transport of lead from densely populated areas in Europe (Nordic Council of Ministers,-1992). Reductions in leaded gasoline are considered to have largely contributed to reduced emissions. However, the reduction of the permissible ievel of lead in gasoline from 0.4 to 0.T5 g/i in 1981 does not appear to have influenced the downward trend in lead emitted to air. The quantity of lead in effluents entering water has declined by 80 per cent since 1977 and was reported to be 14 tonnes in 1S90 (Figure 40). it is aiso reported that atmospheric deposition accounts for 95 per cent of the total anthropogenic input of lead to Sweden's marine area (KEMI, 1992). Average blood lead levels of children living near smelters or in rural or urban environments have been declining since 1978, to below 5 pg/dl in 1988 (Figure 41). Average blood lead levels for the genera! population in Stockholm also fell to below 6 pg/dl by 1984. Important factors contributing to the decline in blood lead levels were considered to be the reduction in the permissible ievel of lead in gasoline, a decrease in the use of lead soldered food cans, and improvements in occupational hygiene {KEMI, 1992). In this latter regard, occupational exposures have also declined. The average blood lead level feii by 30 per cent between 1977 and 1989 (Figure 42). 99 DUP040006593 through soil to crustal weathering, lead deposition from air, and/or lead concentrations in irrigation and groundwaters, it has been suggested that the steady decline in the use ot lead soldered food cans during the 1G80s was a major contributing factor to the decline of lead intake from food (Figure 54). Discords of lead in municipal' solid waste (MSW) are estimated to have increased during rt-.e las. few decades, will', batteries identified as the largest contributor (Figure 55). However, here k unc^rtairu/ f.ncuf i!>' qur. nitty of lead entering the waste stream. The estimates shown, in Figure 52 ,,jere bared on a ru?i>-,oals flow analysis which required assumptions such as the estimated lifetime and recycling rate of a product. Industry assessments of the data indicate that lbs cuantily and relative contribution of discards by end use product can vary substantially and could be much less, depending c m the recycling rate used (LIA, 1391). Alternative estimates using concentrations of lead in mcneratot ash or actual sampling of MSW suggested that the materials flow method overstates lead discards (LIA, 1991). According to a national hpalth and nntdticn survey, NHANES It, the average annual blood ie-vi I-.''-: for r!yid.*.r, <' --jiior-d di-rj-.r. iL,r. r half of the 1970s and continued to register weil beio.-v y l,'-',r-1 cf cr>r, h* IV- nrr-i, cf 25 l n'dl for children (Figure 56).1 The decline has been et routed to reduction:' of lead jn air from decreases in lead in gasoline, a voluntary picgramn'-- |p*y the domestic *ooo !nductry to discontinue use of lead solder in food cans, and the clcciir.- of the; uso of lead in residential,paints -JIFA, 1992). Although overall blood lead levels in children declined, there was statistically significant evidence io indicate that blpcV ciiildmr. had higher blood lead levels. It was noted that urbanisation ano iiv or, ^ dire c*; at r. ; cialco with lead exposures and that children in high risk categories dor ir.i.er-oity b'ack ciiiidxr. in families with low social economic standing) have more cerr pic- exposures, ouch as seeded paint, weathering and chalking, than US children a a who's (Fit-ocd to Congress, SSome data suggest fhr t lead e 'pi- sures had decreased in the US even before the removal cf iead in gasoline. Figure 57 ir- p s toiler plot of US blood lead values from 1935 to 1990 that were sourced h/ the Irk Mar'or si i r>o' end Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO) from isfreature referenced !n Appor di/ A r^onic>z:t."-r, of Figure 57 with Figure 58 suggests that the decline in biood lead te'.ol? n ccoc-ta-.f ''dih ,h; reduction in the use of lead in gasoline after leaded fuel demand peakor! 'n the early 1970s. Lui not prior. The discrepancy in trends may reflect declines in lead e> oo'-ure from c.ncr wwor; c-uefi as paint, drinking water and food. It should aiso be noted tha early blood kad surveys were generally not conducted with the same carefully randomized protocol;.- as istor sur-'cyc In addition, older data was generated using a range of analytical prc'-edums wilhout co lrioicV quality controls and the methodology was less sensitive than, that r.mpte.-ed trdav. fludoin nv-rnods also take greater care in blood sampling to reduce the likelihood bf contamm^ion during sample collection. 1 In 1991, the United States adopted a three-tiered system to assess blood iead exposure. Refer to the section in the following chapter on risk reduction measures in the United States. 101 DUP040006594 COUNTRY DATA 103 DUP040006595 WORKERS WITH BLOOD LEAD LEVELS 5Gpg/d! ir rv*-Lfl*wkH%na. Figure 23 Proportion of Exposed Workers with Blood . Levels Above or Equal to SO pg/di 40 Australia 30. .20 IQ- 1988 1990 Source: Australian Lead Development Association, 1992, 1992 106 DUP040006596 Figure 21 Lead Emission Estimates Cars, Trucks and Motorcycles In 1985 and I8$p bv State in Australia. LtAD (tonnes) Figure 22 Estimated Dietary Intake of Lead Australia -.100 V -.80 - 60 - 40 - 20 ! r~TT > ( v- -) r y -j j r - 0 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1986 1990 Source: Australian Academy .of Science 1981 and National Health 'and Medical Research Council 1990. 105 DUP040006597 figure!26. Blood 'Lead(;teiiss general Population Austria M' Estimated range So u r c e Federal Ministry lor Enviwnmena Youth and Family, 1992. 108 DUP040006598 Figured Lead Emission From Traffic and Fuel Consumption Source: Federal Ministry lor Environment, Youth and Family, 1992. Figure 25 Dietary Lead Uptake Source: Federal Ministry for Environment, Youth and Family, 1992. 107 DUP040006S99 ? Figure m .Canadian Trends -In Geometric Mean Concentration of Lead In Air />r' Figure 30 Estimated Lead Emissions by Sector in Canada 1978 -87 110 DUP0400066Q0 LEAD (iig to fi) Figure 27 Concentration of Lead In Air Figure 28 Change in maximum permissible level of lead in gasoline: A - to 0,55 gfl B to 0,45 g/l C - to 0.40 g/l 0 - to 0.15 g/l Source: Belgium Ministry of Health ;and Environment, 1389. 109 DUP040006601 LEAD (iig/m3) 0.30* 0.25* Figure 32 Mean Concentration of lead in Air : Germany fjBtt^ii 0.20* 0.15* '0.10 0.05 * 01973 1990 Note; Maximum permissible level of lead in air is 2.0 |j.g/m3 (annual mean). Source: German Federal Environmental Agency, 19.92. Figure 33 Mean- Concentration of Lead in River Sediments Germany 400 LEAD (mg/Kg) 1972 Source; German FederarEnVIronmental Agency, 1992. 1985 112 DUP040006602 FlgureSI Canada for Children CD 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 Note: The level of concern for Igad in blood is 25 ug/dl. Sample populations varied by year. Source: Health and Welfare Canada, 1992. Ill DUP040006603 Figure 35 Leaded Gasoline Consumption for Area Source: Hinton eUI,, 1.989, Figure 36 Average Blood Lead' Levels flew Zealand (Christchurch) A Babyload <Cqans) vBfSonstea psverage (cans# C - Milkpowder (cal!) 0. * Pood (cans; * Fiuiyaica (Ipil pastels} ? Fruis juice (rans) G - Eser {orris) H 'Evaporated and dried.m|tlc(lo3 packets) Note; Average JteuseBeitj water lead content remained constant l9?8-8S.ai0.2rumoM. Source; Hinton el at. JS8B. 114 DUP040006604 Figure 34. Blood Lead Levels Npte: Children surveyed were from elementary schools in Berlin, Source: German Federal Health Agency, 1992. 113 DUP040006605 ' 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 Figure 39 .Airborne: .Lead in .Sweden 1970*90 ' 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1884 1986 A Permissible level of lead in gasoline reduced from 0,4 to -0.l5.g8 Source: National Chemicals inspectorate, Sweden, 1992. 1988 1990 Figure 40 Effluents of Lead to Water in Sweden 1977-90 LEAD {tonnes) 116 DUP040006606 Figure 37 Estimated and Known Discharges LEAD (TONMES/YEAR) L E A D (fiQ/l) 1985 So u bc B Slats Pollution Control Authority, 1892. Norwegian Institute tor Air Research, 1982. 1990 Lead Deposition From Air Norway 12-j 10* :8r 6- 4- 2- 0, * -Si'- I .a I: I $ SB 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 ' ' Birkenes ----- - Nordraoen --i--*--* Qsen Karvatn Jergul ------- - Svanvik So u r c e Stale Pollution Control Authority, 1982. 115 DUP040006607 Figure 43 Lead Release, Into the Environment Switzerland Source t=ll Traffic Household Ml industry 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 118 DUP040006808 Figure 41 Average Blood,Lead Levels in Sweden1 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 19.85 1986 1987 1988 Source: National Chemicals Inspectorate, Sweden,-1992. Figure 42 BLOOD LEAD (pg/dl) Source: National Chemicals Inspectorate, Sweden, 1982. 117 DUP040006609 Blood Lead (jimal/l) Figure 45 Average pood- Lead Levels =' fpit^rland- Source: Federal Office of Environment, Forests and Landscape, 1912 120 DUP040006610 Blood Lead (jimot/l) thousand tonnes Figure 44 Gasoline Consumption 1984 1985 1986! 1987 1988 1989 Source? Federal Office of Environment, Forests and Landscape, 1992 119 DUP040006611 Figure 47 Concentration of Lead in Air at Rural Sites United Kingdom Reduction* in themaximum permissible level of lead in gasoline: A 0.64 to O.S5 9fl D 0.45 to 0.40 rj[ B 0.33 to 0.50 g/1 E 0.40tg.0.i5g'l C 0.50 ip 0.45 gfl Source: U.K. Department of the Environment, 1992. 122 DUP040006612 LEAD (tonnes) Figure 46 Lead In Materials Entering .the 'North :Se.a "itgpihe' UnltedKIngdom 121 DUP040006613 LEAD (jig/crS) Figure 51 Concentration of Lead in Air V United States, Figure 52 Trends in Emissions of Lead 1970-89 United States 124 DUP040006614 D TONNES Figure-4i Average Blood Lead levels E Lead ingasoline redpoed from 0.40 To 0.15 g/i. (LNH) Uving Near Highways. ftota: "the level of poncefn for lead in blood Is 25ug/dl. Source: U.K. .Department of the Environment, 1,992. Figure 50 123 DUP040006615 INTAKE ing/day> Figure 55 Estimated Discards of Lead in Municipal Solid Waste 1970-1986 United States Notes: For plasties, used oil, light.bulbs, and brass/bronze, the estimated annual discards are below 4,000 tonnes. Tnere is considerable uncertainly .about the quantity of lead entering ,the waste stream. Levels may be lower than indicated, refer to text Source.: USEPA. Contract, Report: The lead problem and lead.managment activities, 1990. Figure 56 Average Blood Lead Levels United States Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, 1932b. 1,26 DUP040006616 INTAKE (ug/day) Figure 53 Lead Intake from Food Types of Food Cans Shipped United States 125 DUP040006617 flP?IHII3C.A United States blood lead values from literature references (1935-1930) ifi:; J|t%|R, figure 57, / s' 129 DUP040006618 BLOOD LAO(jlQ/dl) figure 57 Blood Lead Levels United States Note: Circles represent blood lead values taken from literature referenced in appendix A. Source: iLZRO,1991. Figure 58 Lead Used in the Production of Gasoline United States ~ - 1930-1941.: Inferred usage - data included under miscellaneous and undefined categories. Source: O.S. Bureau of Mines, 1992, 127 DUP040006619 MBCICO In light of the level of lead exposure of Mexican populations and potential adverse health effects, the Mexican government has taken both regulatory and nonregulatory actions, most over the last ten years, to reduce lead exposure. These activities can be placed into four general categories: a programme to reduce the use of lead in gasoline; establishment of an agreement between government and representatives of industrial, irt aprisumer"prodiJCts; and a health education program. Ail information on Mexican lead policy was obtained from Cortinas de Nava (1992). Lead in Gasoline In 1980, a programme to reduce tetraethyl lead concentration in the regular gasoline (NOVA) was initiated. In 1988, the automobile industry was committed by the government to Introduce catalytic convertors on new model cars beginning in 1991. In 1990, unleaded gasoline (MAGNA SIN) was introduced with the same specifications as the most frequently purchased US gasolines. Overall, from 1988-1992, an 88 per cent reduction in the lead content of gasoline took place, decreasing lead concentrations from approximately 1.0 to 0.1 g/l. Notably, a 50 per cent reduction occurred between 1991 and 1992. In 1992, the price of unleaded gasoline decreased and the price difference between leaded and unleaded gasoline diminished from 40 to 15 per cent. Lead In Drinking Wafer For drinking water, the General Health Law Regulation published in 1988 established a lead level of 0.05 mg/I. In 1989, the Ecological Water Quality Criteria set the following surface water quality criteria: freshwater average lead concentration adjusted for hardness over 4 days should not exceed once each 3 years the following values: :Pb(mg/i) - e1'273'in(hr'jnesE!'4105 where hardness == mg/l CaC03 ; saltwater. 0.006 mg/i (should not be exceeded once each three years on an average) water for agricultural irrigation: 5.0 mg/l drinking water for livestock: 0.1 mg/l 199 DUP040006620 Lead In Food Mexico has also set several standards for lead in foodstuffs, drugs and cosmetics. The maximum permissible level of load in tomato sauce is 0.36 mg/kg according to a Mexican Official Norm (NOM) published in 1982, while the maximum permissible level in vegetable shortening is 0,1 ifig/kg, according to the General Health Law Regulation published in 1988. The maximum permissible level of lead in synthetic organic dyes (Mo. 6 twilight yellow) added to food, beverages, drugs and cosmetics is 10 mg/kg, according to a NOM published in 1975. for Biti$!Pdipt Source ^ntrots The following waste water effluent limits were established as Technical Ecological Norms (the first two in 1988, the next two in 1991): metal industry effluents: 0.1 mg/I daily average copper industry effluents: 1.0 mg/i automobile maintenance, gas stations, dry cleaning, andphotography developing water effluents: 1.0 mg/i daily average urban and municipal waste water used for agricultural irrigation: 0.50 rng/L Lead is included in the list of substances that, if present in waste at concentrations higher than 5.0 rng/l, make it hazardous, according to an Technical Ecological Norm published in 1988. A new Norm that will substitute for the current one includes a list of Industrial activities that generate hazardous wastes containing lead, as: galvanoplasty and metal finishing, extraction, separation, and beneficiation of metals, battery production. Lead in Products On June 5,1991 President Carlos Salinas de Gortari gave instructions to establish within 80 days a programme to reduce lead content in consumer products. Government authorities and representatives of industries, artisans and non-governmentai .environmental groups entered into an agreement on July 5,1991 that establishes the following: * Lead-soldered cans: the metallic can industry representatives agreed to eliminate the use of lead solder and introduce a new welding technology by October 1992. In July 1992, the goal was attained. The approximate cost of technology substitution was $30 million (US). A Mexican Official Norm has been elaborated to specify requirements for food cans. Paints and pigments: representatives of industries that produce paints and pigments, together with government officials, modified two lead standards for the use of lead on products used to cover the surface of toys and school articles. Two NOMs were published on the January 6-7,1992. A maximum permissible level of lead in surface paint of 90 mg/kg was established. 200 DUP040006621 ywpift Japan has implemented measures to reduce the risks from lead in products, from environmental point sources, and within the workplace. Japan does not restrict the use of lead paints, instead, through voluntary agreements with manufacturers, Japan limits the extent to which lead paint is used. For example, on a voluntary basis, lead paint is not used for toys (I960) or household painting {I960}. Lead compounds are used in paints for colouring purposes, and lead pigments are used for anticorrosive purposes in paints. Lead-based paints continue to be used primarily in construction, automobiles and electronic products (Sasaki, 1990). Lead in Gasoline Japanese industrial Standards limit the lead content in gasoline, and since the 1970s, these limits have encouraged gasoline makers to decrease or eliminate the amount of alkyl and tetraethyl lead compounds in gasoline. In the 1980s, leaded gasoline accounted for only one to two per cent of Japan's gasoline production, in more recent years, gasoline containing lead is not manufactured, imported or used in Japan (Mill, 1991). Lead In Drinking Water The Japanese maximum permissible lead concentration in drinking water was 0.1 mg/I (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Lead in Food The Food Sanitation Law of Japan establishes lead content limits for a range of plant products. These limits range from 1.0 to 5.0 mg/kg (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990), Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls The Air Pollution Control Law establishes Japanese emissions standards for lead smelters, processing facilities and other combustors. Japan has set air emission standards for smelters and other lead processing facilities at 10 to 30 mg/m3, depending on the facility. In addition to meeting these air emission standards, facilities are subject to government requirements regarding pollution control technologies for new plants (Sasaki, 1990). Prefectural Government Ordinance may impose stricter air emission standards ranging from 1.5 to 7.0 mg/m3 {ILZSG, 1989a). Since 1958, Japan's Water Pollution Control Law has restricted the lead concentration in effluent discharged from almost all Industrial sectors. Effluent must have a lead concentration of less than 1 m,g/i (MIT!, 1S91; IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Prefectural Government Ordinance may impose more rigid maximum allowable water lead concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 mg/I (ILZSG, 1989a). 197 DUP040006622 Japan also restricts the disposal, sale, production, and reclamation of industrial wastes with high lead quantities. The Wastes Disposal and Public Gleaning Law established requirements for the treatment and handling of such wastes including limits on the spreading or overflow of wastes, as well as restrictions on the locations of potential reclamation areas {MITI, 1991). Lead in Products A significant portion of the iead consumed by Japan is dedicated to the production of leadacid batteries. The majority of these batteries are designed for use in automobiles. Because such (at (different points of sale)' to promote recycling of lead-acid tsatterids, Tolday almost the entire amount of lead used for these batteries is being collected and recycled (MITI, 1991}. Q;cddP^s@nal3tdridards The administrative level for lead in the workplace is set at 0.1 mg/m3 198 DUP040006623 Lead in Soil A recent compilation of soii data for Northrhine-Westphalia shows that upper bound values (95th percentile) of lead content are very high in inner cities (315 mg/kg) as compared to rural agricultural soils (58 mg/kg}. After the evident reduction of lead in air and blood, the limiting factors for further risk reduction are now secondary sources of inner city dust and soii. Conse quently, many German states have limited the lead concentration in the soil of children's playgrounds [for example, Northrhine-Westphalia: playground soil, 200 mg/kg; playground (sandbox) sand, 20 mg/kg]. Taking into account the great spatial variability of soils and their differing capacity to^ HoySre^,0rf the deposition of airborne lead to soil is limited to 0.25mg/rn2/day. Metal emissions from lead smelters and other non-ferrous metallurgical works are limited to 5 mg/nf in total for lead (Pb), antimony (8b), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), manganese {Mn), nickel (Ni), vanadium (V), tin (Sn), platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd), The total dust emission, of which lead is a constituent, is limited to values between 10 (for lead plants) and 20 mg/m3 (for other non-ferrous sources). The lead emissions from battery manufacturing sites are limited to 0.5 mg/m3 (TA Luft 1986). The total dust emission from waste incinerators is limited to 10 mg/m3. In the dust, the emission in toial .of Pb, Sb, As, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, Sn, Pt and Pd must not exceed 1 mg/m3 (Abfallverbrennungsanlagen-Verordnung, 17. BlmSchV, 1990). For direct discharges to water, limits vary from 0.3 to 2.0 mg/I, according to the type of plant. The recommendation for indirect discharges in several Federal States is 0.2 mg/I; effluent from non-ferrous metal plants, mills, foundries and electroplating plants is limited to 0.5 mg/I. There is also an overall limit, of 15 g of lead per tonne of production (Wasserhaushaltsgesetz mit Verordnungen). The use of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes is legally restricted if its lead content exceeds 900 mg/kg. Agricultural soils with a lead content of 100 mg/kg or more may not be treated with any sewage sludge (Klarschiammverordnung, 1992 Amendment). Lead paint removal operations on steel bridges have to take place under effective emission control measures; if feasible, wet sandblasting is required. In cases of dry sandblasting, the structure has to be housed and the blast air to be treated (TA Luft 1986; Special Regulations of the German Railways). Lead In Products Significant quantities of lead are used as stabilizers for PVC, cable sheathing, optical and technical giass, TV picture tubes, and crystal glass. In these applications, the lead is regarded as immobile and fixed in an insoluble matrix, from which it cannot be leached. The use of lead in certain products is restricted. There is no use of soldered cans for food packaging any longer. Food cans are resistance welded (longitudinal seam) and folded (lid and bottom). Jt is estimated that some 10 per cent of food cans, imported from non-European Community countries, are soldered. As mentioned above, there are guideline values for the 195 DUP040006624 maximum lead content of canned food. In addition, the application of lead compounds in pesticides is strictly prohibited. Replacement of lead in ammunition (small shot and bullets) is under development. Positive results with steel shot are being reported. Recycling In 1S89, the total production of lead in Germany consisted of more than 50 per cent recycled materials: Primary production Secondary production 170 200 tonnes 180 500 tonnes ^ Total lead production 1989: 350 700 tonnes There is a continuous trend towards higher recycling rates. The amount of lead in domestic and industrial waste streams is decreasing. The complete collection, safe handling*, processing' and final storage of all kinds of waste fe regulated' by law and controlled .by state1 authorities (Blei-Biianz 1984-1989/L.GA Bayern, 1991; Abfailgesetz, 1988, mit Verordnungen; TA Abfall). Lead batteries are by far largest use of lead in Germany (1989: 178 5001 ~ 49 per cent of total consumption}. The recycling rate for batteries is greater than 95 per cent. Occupational Standards In the workplace, the maximum allowable air lead concentration is 0.10 mg/m3 (timeweighted average over eight hours) (MAK). The maximum allowable blood lead concentration of workers is 70 pg/di for men and for women over 45, and 30 pg/dl for women under 45 (BAT), The concentration of d-Amino-iaevulinic acid (ALA) in urine should not exceed 15 mg/l in men and irj women over 45, and should not exceed 6 mg/l in women under 45 (BAT) (Ref: Maximale Arbeitsplatzkonzentrationen (MAK) und Biologische Arbeitsstofftoleranzwerte (BAT) 1991). Lead paint removal operations on steel bridges have to take place under effective emission control measures: if feasible, wet sand blasting is required. In cases of dry sand blasting, the structure has to be housed and the resulting contaminated air must be treated. 196 DUP040006625 GERMANY Germany has initiated a number of measures to reduce lead exposure and risk. The following1 information was obtained from the Umweltbundesamt (MBA, 1992). Blood Lead Aotion f-ewels The concentration of lead in blood of adults and children shows a clear decreasing trend for the last 15 years. In 1990, mean levels for children and adults were in the range of 6-7 jig/dk This decline is probably attributable to the reduction of lead in gasoline, starting in 1976. in Germany, some physiologists and toxicologists recommend that the blood lead level of adults should not exceed the concentration of 15 jig/d! and those of children and women of childbearing age should not exceed 10 jxg/dl. Lead-based Paint . Germany has taken a number of measures to reduce lead in paint. White lead compounds ("lead white") are banned from sale. Lead-based anti-corrosive paint ("red paint") is being phased out; its use is restricted to repair coatings. In 1989, 880 tonnes were produced, compared with 2200 tonnes in 1983. In this application, lead is being replaced by zinc coatings. Other lead-based pigments (lead chromates and lead molybdates) are used as colouring agents for plastics, printer's ink and iacquer for surface painting. Containers for paint with more than 0.15 per cent lead content must be labelled ("Paint contains lead; not for objects which can be reached by small children") (Gefahrstoff-Verordnung). Lead in Gasoline The maximum lead content pf leaded motor gasoline has been restricted to 0.15 g/i since 1976. Unleaded gasoline has been on the market since 1982. Economic and fiscal instruments have been used to promote the introduction of catalytic converters in private cars and the consumption of unleaded gasoline in cars with and without catalytic converters. Since 1988, regular grade gasoline has been required to be unleaded. At present, there are one leaded and three unleaded types of motor gasoline in the market: Regular, unleaded, 92 RON EURO-Super, unleaded, 95 RON Premium, unleaded, 98 RON Premium, leaded, 98 RON In January 1992, the market share of the unleaded types of gasoline was higher than 80 per cent. The consumption of leaded gasoline is further decreasing and is expected to disappear from the market within a few years [Benzinbleigesetz (1971, Amendment 1987), German Standard DIN 516C0 and 51607]. 193 DUP040006626 1 | illlead In Drinking Water i I ! : ; M :| : : * 't&fffi pipes are the most important source of lead in drinking water in Germany. Lead pipes he r-otSeen installed in new piping systems since the middip of this century; systems that do still exist, are gradually being replaced by lead-free materials (German Standards DIN 1988 and 2000). * r^-rporf~; H ^ drin'-ii'g supply system hare to mainta'P a lead W* iof lorn r0 fig,! si fto naifiS o .r,=/. 'Lion. '7*ir.: -r^r ron-'r,1r'The hovse- ic'iner'lvrid.c.'j i? cbigp'' `n pro'ido drL.lsr.gsi ins .at. with > i^od oo v/:n'i-=ii -/ i :rs lhan 340 yg/i. :f iiils concentra'k n is exceeded. r>ri rwyjpsl, the owner ires tr. mo'aoo riie plpiagr fTrinl v.-e'csrremrcnurip,J500 . mendneni). Copper pips s forddckir-g 'vet'x supmysys-nn-r, hare to be soldered with iead-iree alloys fsuch as SnOu or GriAg) {Gorman Stendarr.1 DM< 170" and DVGW,' Blatt GW 2 of 1983). ' Lead in Food Germany has set only one limit value for lead in foodstuffs. This limit, for wine, is set at 0.3 mg/I. For other foodstuffs, guideline values for lead have been established as follows (in mg/kg): beer, 0.2; milk, 0.03; meat and eggs, 0.25; liver, 0,5; fish, 0.5; leafy vegetables, 0.8; kale, 2.0; and fruit, 0.5 (Lebensmittelgesetz), Animal Feed A value of 20-40 mg lead/kg of dry matter (Futterrnittelgesetz, 1975 und Verordnungen). Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls Surface Water While no environmental quality standards have been .established, authorities generally use the relevant European standards from EEC Directive 75/440 as a guide. This value for lead is 0,05 mg/I. Lead in Ambient Air The maximum tolerable lead concentration in air is limited to 2.0 jxg/m3 (annual mean); the maximum deposition on soil is limited to 0.25 mg/nf/dsy. Diffuse (fugitive) emissions of dust from storage and distribution facilities, including transportation, are also restricted by this rule (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz, TA Luft, 1986, Directive 82/884 EEC). The lead concentration in air, measured at monitoring sites in rural regions, has decreased continuously from about 0.250 fig/nf in 1973 to about 0.025 gg/nf in 1990 (mean values). This reduction is mainly due to the phasing out of leaded gasoline. 194 DUP040006627 in case of water with iow calcium content, using zinc orthophosphates, which, combined with lead, form sails with a iow solubility over a wide pH range. informing the affected public. If the quality standards are exceeded, distribute a set of recommendations by the Higher Council of Public Health to the public, such as: pregnant women, infants and children up to six years old should use bottled water for drinking and preparing feeding bottles. water which has been standing in the faucet should be eliminated by briefly flushing the system before collecting drinking and cooking water, ^ announcing a definitive prohibition regarding the use of lead piping for public distribution of water and for interior use. lead in Soils The Ministry of Agriculture in France has assessed the heavy metal content, including lead, in fertilizers as part of a strategy to reduce heavy metais in fertilizers and soil. Appendix B at the end of this chapter contains a table outlining the concentration of heavy metais in fertilizers in France. Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls The average annual limit value for the ambient air concentration of lead is 2 pg/m3. A national network for continuous automatic sampling has existed since 1984. Standards exist for limiting lead emissions from industrial and other facilities. For incineration facilities for urban waste, a January 25, 1991 decree defines an emission limit value of 5 mg/m3 for a facility of nominal capacity greater than 1 tonne of waste per hour. The limit represents a total value for four heavy metals: lead, chromium, copper and manganese. For incineration facilities for industrial waste, a 1983 Circular defines an emission limit value in gases of 5 mg/m3; however, this value will have to be reduced to 0.5 mg/m3 following the development of a relevant European Directive. For smelters, locai authorities define by regulation the conditions applicable in each specific case. Limits also exist to protect water from lead contamination. For example, there is a prohibition of lead discharges to the underground waters coming from hazardous installations. For the incineration facilities for urban waste, the concentration limit value, before discharge, is 1 mg/I. Several standards have been established to protect soils and sediments. Spreading of sewage sludge must respect the AFNOR U-44-041 standard, which is 800 mg/kg for lead. The approval of fertilizers lakes into account the heavy metal content of the preparations or specialties according to the quantities deposited per hectare and the quantities marketed. This approach allows managing the risk of introducing heavy metals by means of fertilizers. In addition to these standards, the Ministry of Environment set up in 1985 an observatory for soil quality, which allows the co-ordination of the study, research, evaluation and management of soil pollution. Lead In Products France has several rules governing lead in products. For food cans, only external soldering of the cans is allowed. There are also limits on the migration of lead from ceramic kitchen utensiis into food. These limits are defined according to the dimensions of the utensils. 191 DUP040006628 France also adheres to the prohibition of lead capsules for overcorking wine bottles imposed by the EEC on the 1st of January 1993. This prohfoffion has accelerated research and development 'of substitutes. Tin capsules are cpnsijdered fop expensive and are reserved for upper-market products. Plastic capsules don't seem to satisfy consumers, who are accustomed to the touch of lead-tin capsules. This consideration seems to have been taken into account in the development of aluminium-polyethylene capsules. Two agreements concerning the recovery of spent storage, batteries have been set up between the administration and the various professions involved in lead recovery. The first ope ;is an engagement by the garage, owners, gas stations and .recovery pperpfofS foftake.blck' batteries free of charge. The second one aims at facilitating the transport of batteries full of acid (electrolyte) in appropriate containers. 192 DUP040006629 f r a N6e The following information pertaining to the policies implemented by France to reduce exposure to lead was obtained through the Minister of Environment {Deschamps, 1990; Nichelatti 1992). iead-tessed Faint Old paint: The results of detection activities carried out in the Centre for Child Protection in the north eastern Paris area from 1987 to 1991 included more than 1550 children with lead levels in blood exceeding 15 pg/di. An additional study carried out by the hospital services in Paris between 1987 and 1989" identified 300 supplementary cases. More than 69p children required specialized care by a hospital team. The criteria used by the epidemioiogicai study have led to the identification of a population at high intoxication risk, comparable to population groups considered as the most exposed ones in the United States, A joint working group of the Ministries of Health, Environment and Housing, in co operation with Public Health medical teams, has financed a series of studies concerning: the identification of risk factors in domestic accommodations in the Paris urban area. This study showed that in 35 per cent of the habitats and 59 per cent of the common areas which were investigated lead levels were above 1 mg/no2 and above 10 mg/g in flakes of paint. This study should allow the development of a method for drawing up an inventory of domestic accommodations at risk; the determination within six French departments of lead levels in blood for children between 12 and 47 months oid. This study aims to evaluate the extent of this phenomenon at the national level. From 26 to 27 per cent of children between one and six years had levels above 150 jtg/1; and the evaluation of detection methods used by general practitioners. Furthermore, a monitoring network for infant lead poisoning has been recently created in the department of the lie de France, based on the demands for laboratory tests. New paint: Since February 1993, the sale of paints containing white lead is prohibited. The first French "eco-labels"'will be. granted to paints and varnishes not containing lead {and fulfilling other criteria). 189 DUP040006630 jsiLMKl Jrt Gasbiine The lead content of gasoline and of high-octane gasoline has been reduced from 0.55 g/I In fl'iS'l to 0.15 g/I on June 1,1991. Since July 1t 1989, unleaded gasoline has been granted a tai reduction which makes its retail price lower than the price of leaded high-octane gastoline. As a result, consumption of unleaded gasoline has risen rapidly; in July 1991, 27 percent of the gasoline sold contained less than 0.15 g of lead per litre. Current substitutes for iced ir. gecoliir are henceno or o-her aromatic components. It should be noted that benzene is ? r reirc-:rn r-vosc"m!-i is iv.dor way concerning aldehydes. However, aldehyde: influence the 'v'rnar.er:, emitL-rd Trm iI.f exhaust pipe, the toxicity of which differs from the toxicity of ihc. subsiar.cts ocritJnsd in gts olinc. Other substitutes are also under research. Lead in Drinking Water I Directive 75/440/CEE on the quality of surface waters destined for the production of .drinking water in the EC Member States sets at 0.05 mg/I the lead content of the three quality types of surface waters defined by this directive. To enforce directive 80/778/EEC, French j regulation has set the lead limit for drinking water at 50 pg/l. ? The effects of soft water (i.e. water containing < 85 ppm calcium carbonate) on lead piping, and especially the creation of soluble lead salts, has been an important cause for concern for the authorities since the late 1970s. Monitoring of drinking water carried out in Amiens indicated cause for concern. A strategy was designed to combat lead poisoning from water ingestion. The components of this strategy have been the detection of cases of lead poisoning and the establishment of neutralization facilities, to be completed by the end of 1992, for supplied water in zones which have been identified as hard water areas. The discovery, both in the scientific litreature and in the 0% of Amiens, of lead dissolving in so-called non-aggressive waters has widened the range of action priorities of the Health Ministry concerning the lead content of water destined for human consumption. Activities Include: establishing a synthesis of the scientific and technical information, evaluating the priorities and informing decision-makers concerning public waters, as well as informing and improving the awareness of the medical profession. identifying new zones al risk, especially waters with calco-carbonic equilibrium of a pH less than 7.5, supplied by a network including lead piping, analysing water samples." Particular precautions should be taken when measuring tap water samples, such as taking samples as soon as the tap is turned on and not allowing leaks, taking measures for water exceeding regulatory limits, including gradual replacement of lead connections in the public network and modification of building interiors. Pending completion of the work, a public collective treatment can be set up, aimed at modifying the quality of supplied water. Efforts could include: partially decarbonizing the water and adding lime In order to reduce mineral carbon content and subsequently the quantity of dissolved lead salts, 190 DUP040006831 Paint, Lead, and Your Family's Health were distributed through retail paint outlets during 1992 (Canadian Paint and Coatings Association, 1992). Lead and its cornoounds are included on the Ingredient Disclosure List (IDL) (19S7). The is u:ii cf fiy. H-zardv..? Inter-nation System (WHMIS). WHMiS is a r.a'iivnHl sy .'err. of hazard con. v.v.i.-oV'.. ter *-:h;teco hazardous substances mandated by the Her. or.Jcus Products fid ano iho OontmrfM Frrdunte regulations (1983). Under this system, scrinir-ifcd by -V. Cepertncnte rt fteiionei He.'."it c;/j Welfare, Labour, and Consumer and Cor;. '.rrM r `-ft ire. m-quirc-merte arc s.o'-cificd for t! ..* iobeiiing of controlled products, the information, `hai ir.u =t on ?-totena! Ssfcfy Dote Shecte f. flSDSj. and for employee instruction and training. The presence of lead in excess of the limit specified in the IDL must be disclosed on the MSDS and the product label. Radionuclides of lead are regulated under the Atomic Energy Control Act (1985), the Atomic . Energy. JjCptitfol ^^ulafioni (1978) and'the Transport Packaging of Radioactive Materials Regulations (1983). Under the Atomic Energy Control Regulations, possession of lead radionuclide's' which exceed 3.7 kBq of activity per kilogram of substance requires a license from the Atomic Energy Control Board of Canada. The Transport Packaging of Radioactive Materials Regulations (1983) specify minimum standards for the safe packaging and transportation of materials containing radioactive lead. Occupational Exposures to air containing lead, inorganic dust and fumes, as lead, averaged over a full work shirt, must not exceed 0.15 mg/m3. The short term exposure limit (STEL) is 0.45 mg/m3. The cited limits are prescribed in Part X ''Hazardous Substances" of the Canada Occupational Safety and Health Regulations (1986), issued pursuant to the Canada Labour Code (1991). The regulations state that no employee shall be exposed to a concentration of an airborne chemical agent in excess of the value for that agent adopted by the American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists (ACG1H) in its publication entitled Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure indices for 1985-86. However, Part X ip currently being reviewed and consideration is being'given to referencing the current TLVs, as 0.15 mg/m3 (the TLV-STEL value for lead has been deleted). 187 DUP040006632 and the environment. i is, nnt rmssihlo ImnrniWf racyfiJihni Risk reduction for load is cleariy art international issue. Trade is spreading worldwide and the application has an enormous dimension and scope. Internationa! actions are therefore a necessary means to eliminate the use of lead. 188 DUP040008B33 Ojpi'm^/kg in fruit juices, cider, wine* other beverages (as consumed), pnd water Sn sealed containers. The tolerance level is 0.5 mg/kg in; dried ffeh proteih concentrate! A level of 10 mg/kg is allowed for edible bone meai (Food and Drugs Act, 1991). Standards for Environmental apd Pplnt Source Controls The Canadian Environmental Protection Act (pEPA) (1988) provides the federal government with powers to pf'ctlctlhumafruhealth and 'toe environment from the effects of toxic substances that ;not p'|iEStii3tsi /$ctqr ft# Pood an#- Drugs Act. The CEPA approach is a comprehensive "cradle to grave" system for the regulation and control of toxic substances in Canada. The Domestic,. Substances List (DSL) (1991) published under the authority of CEPA cites 84; (1991) published under thelkithoritjjr of dEPfWitbls If 1*8 enjjribs for lead compounds. These entries in the DSL and NDSL will determine the status of lead compounds with respect to the Regulations Respecting Notification of Substances New to Canada (in press) scheduled to come into force in 1993. Lead and its compounds fisted on the DSL are deemed to be existing substances in Canada and are not subject to the New Sbbdtances notification process. All other lead compounds will be subject to notification schedules depending ori the volume to be imported or produced. The Canadian federal government has established ambient water quality criteria for the protection of health and the environment. Criteria for lead concentrations in freshwater with dwelling fauna arb'tJ.OGI to10.007 mg/1, with levels of 0.2 mg/I for irrigation (tentative guideline) and 0.1 mg/I for livestock watering (Environment Canada and Health and Welfare Canada, 1990). \ Elemental lead arid all leadcompounds are regulated under CEPA with respect to ocean dumping (Ocean Dumping ,'Rbgulatibhs, 1,989). The discharge of lead and lead compounds from ships in : Canadian territorial waters 'is regulated under the Canada Shipping Act (1991) and the Pollutant Substances Regulations (1978). Soli criteria have beep recommended as part of the Interim Canadian Environmental Quality Criteria for Contaminated'Sites (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1991). They includp tpotjiTi ^spssrriqpt^rid remediation criteria. Assessment criteria }are benchmarks against which the degree, of contamination at a site is assessed. The assessment criterion for lead in soil is 25 mg/kg dry weight. [Remediation criteria are intended as generic guidance benchmarks to evaluate the need for fillriper investigation or remediation for a specific land use. When applied to site-specific conditions',!.they become remediation objectives. Suggested interim remediation criteria for ieab in soil ar#|375 mg/kg for agricultural use, 500 mg/kg for residential/parkland, and 1000 mg/kg for commercial/industrial use. The recommended maximum lead concentration, as specified in the National Guidelines on Physical-Chemical-Bidiog'ica! Treatment of Hazardous Wastes, is 0.1 rng/1 in liquid effluents from waste treatment sites (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1989), Canada, has national legislation for lead emissions from secondary lead smelters. The Secondary LeecJ Smelter Release Regulations (1991), which were first enacted under the Clean Air Act in 1977 land subsequently incorporated into CEPA in 1991, limit, emissions of particulates to 23 mg/ir3 or 46 mg/m3, depending on the type of operation. The amount of lead is limited to the equivalent of 63 per cent by weight of the particulate matter. The regulations further prohibit the release of particulate matter into the ambient air from the storage of lead-bearing scrap or 185 DUP040006634 lead-bearing materia! in or about a secondary smelter, other than as a result of handling. The 'Mciferaf government does not regulate other jstack emissions of lead, however, primary lead rh^Itbi's' have fcieen required jtd comply with these requirements since 1989. Most provinces have licensing systems in place to regulate stack emissions of particulates, on the order of 29 mg/m5, for,smelters (other than secondary smelters) and 14 to 15 mg/m3 for refineries. Some provincial 'i^ pearr Air Programme (Government of Ontario, Environmental Protection Act; Ambient Air Quality Criteria Regulation, 1930; General - Air Pollution Control Regulation, 1980). O. -.if..!: f,r, ip '.' 'urtrial eluent e:-iri on both the nation;:! and provincial level. Under the f,dor.':i rriiorte* i'X fi091). v,r ,>Vpr.> s'.hii.n urui'' regulations and Guidelines .,.(1.9/r <i-L pr-of; to cortr) cono^nlr.Hone- d V-'O w- -.'bar ri>c.r r in effluent for metal mining iiOpere'ioo;.. fte/hvrn liouid e.f'j'-ni emiosione c limllfin ic r> mg,'! monthly average, 0.4 mg/1 *Tir / n u" n a sample fEn-rironfficn; Caned-". 16?/). A Vs; Finis!ihu Liquid Effluent Guidelines (DepotImf-v.t o* Fisheries arc' Ocr;snc 19/f- limii Icsd in effluent to 1,5 mg/I. Provinces have- llcensli.o sy terrs c'-n+rc1 tfiirrm disoh; r.er~. on a site specific basis. For example, Ontario's MuricJo;.! and Inductnsl STa.egy fot / fcctem-.r.i itf'lt, no.cram.r'e vil! also include controls for ffcac 'Gn/emment of Or.j&rio. Environmental Proiocfinn /ci). Recycling Canada recycles an estimated 93 per cent of lead-acid batteries. Lead batteries that are filled with acid are classified as hazardous and, as a result, their transportation and storage are regulated oy Federal and provincial requirements (international Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1989b), Regulation of the transport and handling of lead-bearing scrap is divided between the federal Transport of Dangerous Goods Act and the provincial authorities. British Columbia is drafting provincial lead-add battery regulations to consolidate these rules (British Columbia Battery News, 1991a). The British Columbia Lead-acid battery Collection System Is a provincial programme to increase recycling, particularly in remote regions of the province. The goal is to achieve a province-wide recycling rate of 98 per cent. To attract more returns from remote areas, : the government offers a cash incentive to offset transportation costs (British Columbia. Battery I News, 1.991b). The revenue for this programme comes from a $5.00 green tax on new batteries, i Started in 1991, programme recycling facilities have seen a substantial increase in returns from remote areas (Keating, 1992). Educalion/Labelling Labelling requirements exist for lead paints, lead-acid batteries, and other lead products. Under Canada's Hazardous Products Act, bilingual labelling for ail lead-based paints is required. Also, the Department of National Health and Welfare has undertaken extensive education and awareness programmes aimed at the arts, crafts and hobby communities to increase awareness about the hazards associated with some of the materials used in these activities (Health and Welfare Canada, 1990), The Health Protection Branch of Health and Welfare Canada has published two recent issue papers to convey general information to the public on issues related to lead. One paper provides facts on lead and health (Health and Welfare Canada, 1989), and a second paper provides information on removing lead based paint during home renovations (Health and Welfare Canada, 1991). One million copies of a joint federal government-private sector publication entitled Old 186 DUP040006635 CANADA Canadian risk reduction efforts have Seen a combination ofnational and provincial regulation, educational efforts, and voluntary industry initiatives. Stood Lead Action .Level ^' The Federal Provincial Advisor/ Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health has recommended 25 pg/dL as the national "action level" for blood lead levels in children that is, the level at which intervention is appropriate. This level is under review (Health and Welfare Canada, 1989). / Lead in Consumer Products Lead is limited to 0.5 per cent in coating materials applied tp children's products such as furniture and toys as well1 as to pencils and artists brushes (Hazardous Products Act, 1991; Hazardous Products Regulations, Chapter 928,1988). These regulations were under review as of January 1992. Leachable lead from glazed ceramics is currently under review as well It is expected that the limit for lead (currently 7 ppm in leachate) will be substantially reduced (Hazardous Products Regulations, Chapter 925,1988; McBain, 1992). Lead-based Paint Canada restricts the advertisement, importation and sale of paints containing lead. Lead is permitted in products (paints) only if it is for use on the exterior surface of a building and is labelled: "Caution: contains leaf. Dp not apply to surfaces that children may chew." This regulation is currently under review (Hazardous Products Act, Chapter 928,1988; McBain, 1992; Health and Welfare Canada, 1991). On the recommendation of the Canadian Paint and Coatings Association (the trade association for Canadian paint manufacturers), the Canadian paint industry voluntarily stopped using lead in consumer paint at the beginning of 1991. The trade association represents greater than 90 per cent of the liquid coatings market in Canada (Health and Welfare Canada, 1991; McBain, 1992). Lead in Gasoline Between 1976 and 1985, airborne lead concentrations decreased by 76 per cent. This drop is believed to be largely attributable to the increased use of unleaded gasoline (Health and Welfare Canada, 1989). In 1989, Canada reduced its tax on lead-free gasoline and prohibited, in December, 1990, the use of leaded gasoline, except in critical equipment such as farm, marine and commercial transportation and piston driven aircraft engines, in order to avoid premature engine wear (Gasoline Regulations, 1990). in these exceptional cases, gasoline may contain a maximum of 0,026 g/l lead. A maximum of 5 mg/l is permitted for any other purpose. Enforcement of these restrictions is carried out through regional inspectors and through reporting requirements for refineries. 183 DUP040006636 fLbbdlti Pesticide Products - Ml agricultural and forestry pesticides, wood preservatives and disinfectants in us in Canada must be 'registered under the Pest Control Products Act (1991) and Pest Control Product Regulations ()978). Thbsb'products and their Ingredients are subject to a comprehensive review to ensure the protection of human health, safety and the environment, conducted by the Departments of Agriculture, National Health and Welfare, Environment, and Forestry. Lead is not used as an active ingredient in any pesticide product registered in Canada. Lead azide is classified as a primary explosive, it is used as an ingredient in detonators, blasting caps, and priijners. Civilian applications of lead azid are controlled under the Explosives Act (1981) and Explosives Regulations (1S78) by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. A separate regulatory scheme exists for military uses of lead azide, under the control of the Minister of National Defence (Minister of National Defence, 1992; Defence Production Act, 1991). The discharge of a. lead projectile from a firearm results in microscopic shearing of lead particies from the bullet as it passes down the barrel. These particles are subsequently sprayed from the barrel, along with a cloud of iead compounds generated from lead siypanate in cartrige primers, indoor firing ranges are ventilated to reduce airborne iead levels. Lead free ammunition is now under development by the Department of National Defence, Lead W Drinking Water Canada currently allows a maximum of 10 j*g/l in drinking water (Minister of National Health and Welfare, 1989). This level was approved by ail provinces in the fail of 1989. Possible sources of lead in drinking water include solder and brass plumbing fixtures. The 1990 Canadian Plumbing Code permits a maximum lead content of 0 2 per cent for bolder and fluxes in contact with potable water (National Research Council of Canada, 1990). The Canadian Standards Association is currently preparing amendments to the standard limiting lead content of brass fittings to 8 per cent. Generally, fittings do not contain more than 8 per cent lead, but this limit is not specified in current regulations. Another possible source of lead in drinking water is lead supply pipes that still remain in many municipalities, although these lines may have acquired a lime interior capable of preventing contact between lead and drinking water. Lead in Food Lead levels in food have been regulated since the mid-1970s. Cooperation between government and the canning Industry led to reductions in the use of iead in soldering cans and a reduction of lead spattering during can production. Canned baby food has been phased out, with most baby food now packed in glass jars, if is estimated that only about 5 per cent of canned food In Canada is still packaged in lead soldered cans. The Canadian government has set tolerances for lead in various foods which are consistent with international standards (Technical Reports from Annual Meetings; of the sJpint FAQ/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). These tolerance levels vary between 0.08 mg/kg for ready-to-serve infant formula to 1.0 mg/kg for tomato paste and sauce- Tolerance levels are 184 DUP040006637 * 0.001 - 0.005 mg/1 in freshwater (depending on hardness), G.0Q5 mg/I in marine waters. Ambipnt water' quality goals are alp established for fresh water .and saltwater by individual states anil territories. Unfits oh intfostrial effluent have been established as one means to achieving the ambient goals. The limits set for jflp discharge of lead to water depend on the nature of the environment and the iindustry dnd frfojustes dr the valhe of thfei #hter body, but are typically around 0.p5 mp/i. In Victoria, minimum, levfold* Which are easily achievable! are set via statutory policy at 0.10 mg/i. More stringent levels are often set where the environment is sensitive or when Sower levels are practicable. Lead in Food The NHMRC Food Standards Code 1987 has set maximum permissible levels for lead in specific foods between 0.2 and 2.5 mg/kg, depending on the foodstuff, if a food additive is not specifically included in the standards, the additive may not contain more than 10 jxg/kg of lead. Ali food offered for sale in Australia (domestic or imported) must meet these limits. NHMRC monitors consumption of lead in food through market basket surveys. When excessive levels are found, legal action can be taken. State and Territory health authorities also conduct food surveillance and monitoring programmes. The canning industry in Australia produces lead solder side seam cans and welded cans for food use. Although there are no regulations governing the amount of lead used in solder, NHMRC limits the lead content of food. These range from 0.3 mg/kg for infant food and milk to 2.5 mg/kg for meat, tomatoes and fruit juices. Cans for infant food are understood to be welded. Lead Ip Products Australia, limits the lead content of a number of consumer products. In 1976, the NHMRC recommended applying the British standard "Permissible Levels of Metals Released from Glazed Ceramic Ware." In 1980, NHMRC recommended that any utensil or appliance Used to contain food or drink should not release more than 0.2 mg/J lead, these limits apply to both domestic and imported goods. NHMRC also recommended in 197$ restrictions of 0.01 per cent for the lead content of pencils, toys, crayons, pastels and other art pigments, and a iead content of not greater than 0.25 per cent of lead or lead compounds in coating materials. Recycling Though there are no regulations governing the disposal of used lead batteries in Australia, recycling is common For some end uses of lead, such as roofing, there is great potential for recycling although the time between installation and removal is often considerable. Lead use in brass or bronze, for example, is unlikely to be recycled to any great extent because the associated costs are considered prohibitive, while for other iead uses, such as wheel weights* the lead is tost to the environment (ALDA, 1992), However, recent Australia-wide industry studies regarding the fate of lead-acid batteries indicate that the recycling rate is greater than 90 per cent 181 DUP040006638 Occupations! Standard Australian regulation limits both workplace air concentrations of lead and maximum allowable blood lead concentrations for workers, in 1380, the National Health and Medical !ResearcN'cbuijjfeR'(NHMRC} rbdbrhmended an occupational pnaxirpum blood lead level of 70 pg/d! (for males and*'40 pg/dl fdr ferpales. However, those guidelines vwll1 soon be abolished in anticipation of the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission's proposed standard. Al! states have legally adopted this level; however, in Queensland and Western Australia it only applies for mines. The Australian lead industry (1988) recommended a maximum occupational blood lead level of ,70 p,g/dr for mkfes,arfd 30 pg/dl for females, and In 1992 recommended a( maximum of 85 pg/d( for males. Tfie Australian lead Industry further rbpommerijds oohcentratiorjs of lead in blood at which return to occupational exposures may occur (50 pg/d! for males, 25 pg/dl for females)* 182 DUP04000663S Australians taken risk reduction measures on tioth the national and state/territory levels. In Australia, |he federal Government has responsibility for co-ordinating national approaches to chemical related issues. The Federal'Government ateo, represents Australia in international fora such as the OECD. It also co-ordinates guidelines for environmental standards such as air and water quality criteria. Responsibility for chemicals control and risk management generally resides with the six State goyernment^|(^ew(South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, Queensland, South. Australia) and the two Territory governments (Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory) unless specifically legislated For the Federal government. The foliowing discussion describes Commonwealth, State and Territory activities in Australia. This information was provided by the Commonwealth Environmental Protection Agency (Bainton, 1992; Garten, 1990a) except as rioted. Lead-based Paint Like most other OECD countries, Australia has established restrictions on the manufacture and use of lead-based paint. There are general restrictions on the use of lead paints in Australia, including: roofs used to collect drinking water; furniture; toys; non-industriai dwellings; and factory premises used for food preparation, processing or producing of products for human consumption. Manufacturing of lead-based paint has been prohibited for the most part since 1960. Reductions on the use of lead in household (building) paint have applied since the early 1960s, and are currently at 0.25 per cent non-volatile content In Queensland, action can be taken under the Health Act to require the removal of lead-based paint in situations where it is considered to pose a risk to health. Current use of lead-based paint in Australia is primarily for industrial purposes. In Tasmania,j two classes of lead paint are used. Class 1 paint, with more than one per cent of non-volatile components as lead, requires warning labels and is primarily used on exteriors. Lead is less than one per cent of the non-volatile component in Class 2 paint. In Queensland, lead paint is still used on bridges and boats. Major Australian companies no longer prepare lead-based paint for the domestic market. Lead in Gasoline The use of tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock additive in gasoline has been linked to highlevels of atmospheric lead and subsequent human exposure via Inhalation and ingestion pathways. Because of the widespread exposure caused by this end-use, restrictions on lead gasoline additives have been implemented in many countries. The regulations for lead content in gasoline are not uniform throughout Australia; lead content restrictions range from 0.3 g/i in some city areas to 0.84 g/i in country areas. In New South Wales, the concentration of lead in gasoline has been regulated since 1974, with the current standard of 0.4 g/l instituted in 1980, while in Victoria, regulations for leaded and unleaded fuel went into effect in 1983 and 1985. Queensland has reduced the iead content of its gasoline from 0,84 to 0,4 g/i in the capita! city area, and this standard will be progressively extended to the rest of the state by 1993. Also, it is now prohibited in Queensland to use any combustible material that has, or contains fuei having, a lead content 179 DUP040006640 extending 0.02 per cent by weight. Unleaded gasoline1 *y/as introduced in Australia in 1985. The Federal Motor Vehicles Standards Act requires that all cars manufactured or imported after January 1,1986 operate on unleaded gasoline. In 1987, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) set the drinking Wptsr lead standard at 6.85 mg/I. This limit has legal standing in Australian Capital Territory (ACT) (for domestic water) and in Western Australik (for drinking water) (ILZSG, 1t9'S9a). The ACT also limits the concentration of lead in the raw water supply to 0.05 mg/1. Several states have policies to limit lead exposure through drinking water. In Tasmania, potential sources of lead contamination in drinking water are removed when this is practical, and the use of potential lead sources in new installations are prevented by local government authorities, in Queensland, lead pipes are not used for water reticulation. Startcfar# for; Environmental Media and Point .Source Controls The NHMRC recommends an air concentration of 1.5 jxg/m3 averaged over three continuous months. This limit has legal standing in Victoria, Tasmania and ACT. NHMRC recommends an emissions limit at ground level around stationary sources of 10 mg/m3. This limit is legally enforceable in. most states and territories; however, in Western Australia and Nortfiem Territory, the iimit is stiii a recommendation. The Queensland Clean Air Act Regulations, 1982, limit the total emissions of lead, arsenic, antimony, and mercury (and compounds of these elements) to 20 mg/m3 (ILZSG, 1989a); however, the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage has the power io impose stricter emissions limits for lead as a condition of license. The ACT Air Pollution Act 1984 limits emissions from municipal combustors to 10 ng/m3 of residual gases. Generally, these emissions limits are enforced through a combination of industry emissions reporting and monitoring requirements and state or territorial government auditing of stacks and of the industry-operated monitors. Certain states make allowances for higher emissions from older facilities, in Tasmania* emissions from installations in operation before 1975 are limited such that the total concentrations oi lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury and compounds of these metals cannot exceed 23 mg/m3. Installations in operation after 1975 are limited to 10 mg/m3. Similarly, primary and secondary smelters in operation in New South Wales before 1972 are limited to 20 mg/m3, while any subsequent plant must meet the 10 rng/m standard, in New South Wales, bag filter technology is used at both primary and secondary smelters. The NSW Environmental Protection Authority (NSW EPA) requires industry to monitor and report emissions and performs audit testing on plant stacks and monitors. Industry must also operate ambient monitors outside piartt boundaries; these monitors are also audited by NSW EPA. The Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters, published by the Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Coynpif (1992), recommend the following median values to protect aquatic ecosystems, 1 Note: It is generally accepted internationally that vnte&ded gasoline is defined as gasoline containing less than 0.013 g of lead per litre. 180 DUP040006641 CHAPTERS \ fiSleH#*iSiS-:fK>R RISK REDUCTION During trie past few decades, most Member countries have taken steps to reduce Unacceptable -human and ecosystem risks, from exposure to lead. Among trie most successfulof these- measures have been restrictions on the use-off lead in certain products- with significant exposure potential (for example, interior paint, gasoline). Accompanying these measures have been actions to establish criteria for acceptable levels of lead in environmental media, to limit industrial emissions of lead to the environment, to control occupational exposures, and to identify biologically based indices for determining populations at risk. Despite the success of many of,: these measures in reducing lead exposure, some Member countries continue to consider possible steps to further reduce lead exposure. This is because of toe uncertainty regarding establishing a blood lead level below which there is an absence of risk from adverse health effects. This chapter reviews risk management activities among Member countries and one nonMember country, Mexico, which has observer status, included are discussions of steps taken in the past to reduce lead exposure, as well as current activities and potential future measures contemplated by certain countries. Country-specific risk management activities are summarized in Table 5.1 As shown in this table, the extent of toes activities varies substantially among the OECD Member countries. The lead risk reduction activities of thirteen countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Nordic countries and toe European Community are described in this chapter. The descriptions are based on information provided by countries. The remaining Member countries did not provide enough information to develop a detailed description of their risk reduction activities. A summary of industry risk reduction initiatives is also included. The series of tables in Appenix A at the end of this chapter summarize available data on lead risk reduction activities in Member countries and in Mexico, information in the summary tables was either taken from detailed descriptions, or extracted from secondary sources or government publications. Repeated requests for information on lead risk reduction activities were made to ali Member countries in 1991 and 1992. Lack of information in this report on a particular Member country means either that no risk reduction activities have taken place in that country, or that the Member country has declined to respond to toe requests for information. 177 D U P040006642 TSiSe: :5i4 Areas In which Member Countries and Mexico Have Deveibped Environmental Policies for Lead ' / O ./- p : / / I'-iAUSTBlA'-^' * ,, *' L fktSf ISIS / / / / -V IxrSl iSC-*'/ / : /! / . 7 /, f . f - t'JSSiE ii 5ft x;; r >i-. ' | 1 AUSTRALIA j HCWftDAS'jsS'!;?' | FINLAND ^S-ANty^ft v'V.'-Olt X X X XX vX^/; / X XX V\ XX V>:fe: '% ' X X V:' ; Vk^ -s. -sMft-i XX .V\ -'; r^::? S X X yft X :'.<i v.V'Jw' X' :'X. sis X ' X lx-ft''-] X ^ - JAPAN ifEXico1'^: * XX v# 'W's X XX X : x, ; ':X?n: v3. XX X-'" X x, ;V` V^:' `xf^T ;Vw' Vx."*'* NEW ZEALAND i. x-.* , .NORWAYsS'ili' i V SWEDEN ' jWffziRUNff ? X 3 X p |r|^ ;X 'j~> : .i X X-. P . X- . X X :.X: Vx-.;r Sxts < X' X X X';' ;> V ' 1 x=. = vk:.CV5f X r-x';^; rX X1 / x: . X .i P`S' ;x^ ` p X X- ' 'Tv * ;1 TURKEY UNITED STATES EC ' | SELGiUUV'^' * * DENMARK -`FRANCS ^ * GERMANY ^ GREECE ' ^ IRELAND 1' ^ITALYT^ . - - LUXEMBOURG swivsnuw;' PORTUGAL *SPMN UNITED KINGDOM V\. !x^ X '* sri> X ' X 1 'X 'X x , up-. X #''SV3;> /X X ' ftXL:? 1 'X'.' ||'X 'IX X - lifts % *1 yX~!\. X X X, * XX - ' X!,: X ' IxL ft X -!x^C %:-1 x; x . !/ > -'X X X P ; IjiXi'm. TX'S; X vX^-'; ft' X : xk* SC|: ' ` 'X, : x:. X' XX 1 Xft-f *>- X xl ;X ; X X vftft X '4- X. x; - Xi` > X Vft sffi X! X |',- ; .< XI -v&SVJ '' -f'1 X Sxgi xj^` h'fX^T ? l/ X| , x! . X \ : ' / a}1. X ; f.rX' r .' x* X X x M! X X ' k'j > w M' fix 'X: : .X ' >tr'; - ij. : -x A 4 X i1 ['1 ,A._. -*&p- fx>ft. JX. X X; p "-Ik : "V `' .-* 1 1 .1 X ;x' ftx'v LJ . X ;] X ftyvKs' :xT-^ r 3ft- . .1 X1 V .1 3f ' ftft?'.,;X ' -k,. ( ft 1 k *,' i ^ __J I.X, ijk ' X: Existing RegutatfanfActMty P; Proposed Reguiaiion'ActMfj' 178 . DUP040006643 Immune system There is no evidence in humans of an effect Of lead on the immune system. 175 DUP040006644 khijiHaWwlIn i :i ^' . 9.S.2.4 Age-specific sensitivity From prospective studies it is not possible to determine an age of critical sensitivity. This reflects the findings that serial blood lead measures taken at 2 years and later are positively correlated, with individual rankings remaining approximately constant, and this limits the ability to identity sensitive periods of exposure. 9.B.2.5 Interactions/subgroups (gender, socio-economic status) >' The evidence is inconclusive regarding whether apparent effects are more or less marked in different gender or socioeconomic status (SES) subgroups. However, where there are suggestions of SES-related differences, the apparent effects tend to be more marked in lower SES subgroups. ' 9,6,3 Animal studies Experimental animal studies of CNS effects provide support for the associations between PbB levels and neurobehavioura) deficits described in human epidemiological studies of lead. There is supportive evidence both in terms of demonstrating causal relationships and in the levels of PbEl at which such effects are observed (11-15 pg/dl). Moreover, they provide qualitative parallels in the nature of the effects described, as these effects include changes in learning and memory functions. Experimental animal studies indicate that these CNS effects may depend upon task complexity and can persist long beyond the termination of lead exposure. These studies also provide information possibly relevant to understanding mechanisms of effect. In addition, the experimental animal studies provide such evidence in the absence of the confounding factors and co-variates, such as parental IQ, socioeconomic status, and quality of the home environment, that are problematic to human epidemiological endeavours, and in the absence of nutritional deficiencies that may arise in human populations. 9.7 Renal system - adults Renal function impairment was not associated with a PbB level below 3.0 pmol/litre (62 pg/dl) when measured by blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine in lead workers. However, renal tubular effects were detected in workers with a PbB level below 3.0 pmol/litre when measured by more sensitive indicators such as NAG. Most studies on the generaf population attempting to relate renal function impairment to PbB concjentration have not demonstrated an effect with PbB levels below 1.8 pmol/litre (37.3 pg/di). Mbre sensitive indicators of renal function may indicate a renal effect of lead below this level. 9.8 Liver Over exposure to lead may inhibit drug metabolism in the liver. 173 DUP040006645 Impaired neurobehavioural test performance has been fpund in lead-exposed workers. Changes in critical flicker fusion test have been detected at a PbB level of about 2.4 pmol/litre (50 ug/dl). Sensory motor function is generally more sensitive than cognitive end-points in many neurobehavioural evaluations, with the lowest-observed-effect level being at about 1.92 jimol/litre (40 fig/dl). It appears also that neuroeiectrophysiological tests are sensitive indicators of the CNS effects of lead. Reductions in latencies of sensory evoked potentials and auditor/ event-related potentials have been found in workers with average PbB levels of approximately 1.92 [imol/litre (40" pg/dl). 9.6.1.2 Peripheral nervous system > Numerous studies have measured the conduction velocity of electrically stimulated sensory and motor nerves in workers exposed to lead. These nerve conduction velocity (NCV) studies have yielded somewhat mixed results, with many showing a decrease in NdV In relation to lead exposure (indexed as PbB) and a few showing no effect or occasionally even an increase in NCV associated with lead exposure. Differences in the nerves evaluated, methodologies, characterization of lead exposure, and control of confounding variables underlie some of the variability in results across studies. A statistical meta-analysis of 32 NCV studies has indicated that NCV is significantly reduced in lead-exposed workers compared to reference subjects, but that the median motor nerve shows more reliable effects of lead than other nerves. This collective view of the evidence is supported by key studies that provide compelling evidence of a causal relationship between lead exposure and reductions in NQV, extending to PbB levels as low as 1.44 junoi/litre (30 fxg/dl). These effects may be reversible depending on the duration and level of exposure. 9.6.1.3 Autonomic nervous system Two reports examining the electrocardiographic RR interval variability during deep breathing and the component CV of respiratory sinus anythmsa demonstrated dysfunctions at an average PbB level of 35 jig/dl. These results suggest autonomic nervous system dysfunction, particularly involving the parasympathetic nervous system. 9.6.2 Children Prospective and cross-sectional studies of children demonstrate associations of lead exposure, measured by various indices, and intellectual performance. The association has been noted across a wide range of exposure levels and in a variety of populations before factors other than lead have been accounted for. A key question is whether this statistical association is directly attributable to the causal influence of lead on child IQ. It is important to consider alternative contributory explanations, i.e, random chance, unexplained confounding factors, reverse causality and selection bias. It is a matter of debate and conjecture as to the extent to which these four issues should inhibit claims of a causal relationship in the epidemiological studies. The essential problem is that observational epidemiology cannot provide definitive evidence of causality when the key statistical association is small, the temporal relationship Is unclear and major confounders are present. 171 DUP040006647 Animal studies provide qualitative support for the claim of a causal role for lead in affecting neuropsychological performance, but provide limited assistance in establishing quantitative doseeffect relationships. 9.6.2.1 Type of effect The clearest and most consistent associations have been found with global measures, such as IQ, where the largest body of evidence is available. Efforts to delineate the neuropsychological foundations of this association with a wide variety of tests of specific neuropsychological domains have not so far been successful. 9.6.22 Magnitude of effect Based on the evidence from cross-sectional aid prospective studies of populations with PbB levels generally below 25 ng/dl, the size of the apparent IQ effect (at age 4 and above) is a deficit between 0 and 5 points (on a scale with a standard deviation of 15) for each 0.48 pmol/litre (10 pg/di) increiment in PbB ievei, with a likely apparent effect size of between 1 and 3 points. At PbB levels above 1.2 pmol/Iitre (25 jxg/dl), the blood relationship between PbB level and IQ may differ. Estimates of effect size are group averages and only apply to the individual child in a probabilistic manner. . Existing epidemiological studies do not provide definitive evidence of a threshold. Beiow the PbB range of 0.48-0.72 pmol/litre (10-15 ug/dl), the effect f confounding variables and limits in the precision of analytical and psychometric measurements increases the uncertainty attached to any estimate of effect. However, there is some evidence of an association below this range; 9.62.3 Reversibility/persistence Whilst the Task Group could not unequivocafiy state that effects of early childhood exposure were persistent beyond childhood, because the current data are loo meagre, it was held that neurobehavioura! effects detected at age seven or later usually persist. Measures in later childhood tend to be more predictive of subsequent performance than those made earlier, it is more likely than not that effects seen during school years are to some degree irreversible. This has also been observed in later follow-up studies conducted on non-lead topics of child development research. One of the difficulties is that there are too few data concerning long-term outcome in children with high early exposures whose sources of exposure are subsequently removed. * Virtually no useful data are available concerning the effects on IQ of removing children from a "high" exposure environment to one of `low" exposure or on reduction of body lead burden in children. This is not to say that exposure should not be reduced when possible. 172 DUP040006648 9.5,1.1 Urinary coproporphyrin The coproporphyrin concentration in urine increases significantly with PbB levels in excess of 1.92 pmol/litre (40 pg/di). 9.5.1.2 Urinary ALA - children in children 1-5 years old, there is a linear relationship with PbB in the range 1.2-3(6 pmol/litre (25-75 pg/di). Data for children with PbB levels of 0.24-1.92 pmoi/Iitre (5-40 pg/dl) show essentially no correlation with urinary aminolaevulinlc acid (ALA) excretion. Elevation of ALA-U is evident at about 1.68 pmol/litre (35 pg/dl). 9.5.1.3 Urinary ALA - general population Urinary excretion pf ALA increases in men at PbB levels above 2.16 pmoi/Iitre (45 pg/dl) and in women above 1.68 pmol/litre (35 pg/dl). 9.5.1.4 -Aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) There was a negative exponential relationship between PbB level and ALAD activity in a population of 10- to 13-year-old children with PbB levels in the range 0.19-1.97 pmol/litre (4.7-41 pg/dl). An effect was seen at a PbB level of approximately 0.48 pmol/litre (10 pg/dl). There is an apparent lack of a clearly defined threshold fpr lead inhibition of ALAD in different age groups. 9.5.2 Vitamin D metabolism In the presence of adequate nutritional status, PbB levels below 0.96 pmol/litre (20 pg/dl) appear to have no demonstrable effect on circulating concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin P. A PbB level above 0.9 pmol/litre (20 pg/dl) is associated with a decrease in the serum level of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D. 9.5.3 Dihydroblopterln reductase Inhibition of dihydrobiopterin reductase has been shown in humans where the mean PbB level is as low as 0.48 pmol/iitre (1 O'pg/dl). 9.5.4 Haemopoietfc system 9.5.4.1 Anaemia - adults The estimated PbB level associated with a decrease in haemoglobin is 2.40 pmoi/Iitre (50 pg/dl). 169 DUP040006649 Table 9.2. Biochemical effects of lead Parameter -- ....- Protoporphyrin level Coproporphyrin level ALA urine level ALAD activity 1,25-Dihydroxy vitamin D Dihydrobiopterin reductase Blood lead level above which the biochemical effect is demonstrable with current techniques (pg/dl) - ......... - 20-30 40 35 10 20 10 9.5A.2 Anaemia - children Decreased haemoglobin levels in children occur at a PbB level of approximately 1.82 fxmol/litre (40 ug/dl). Anaemia, defined as a haem.ato.crlt below 35 per cent, is not found at a PbB level of less than 0.92 pmol/litre (20 pg/di), The risk of having a haematocrit vaiue below 35 per cent for a 1-year-old child was 2 per cent at a PbB level of 0.96-1.87 pmol/litre (20-39 pg/dl); the contribution of iron deficiency may account for a substantial proportion of this 2 per cent. Induction of anaemia is demonstrable at 1.92 pmol/litre (40 pg/dl) 9.S.4.3 Erythrocyte pynmidine-5'-nucleotidase A reduction by 20 per cent or more in eiythrocyte pyrimidine-S'-nucleotidase activity is associated with PbB concentrations above 10 pg/dl. It was concluded that effects of lead were demonstrable on a number of enzyme systems and biochemical parameters. The PbB levels, above which effects are demonstrable with current techniques for the parameters which may have clinical significance, are all greater than 0.96 pmol/litre (20 jxg/dl). Some clinically insignificant effects on enzymes are demonstrable at lower levels of PbB. 9.6 Nervous system 9.6.1 Adults 9.6.1.1 Central nervous system (CNS) With acute lead exposure resulting in a PbB level in excess of $0 jig/dl, severe encephalopathy and/or coma may occur, CN$ symptoms are found in lead-exposed adults when there is a history of several years of exposure to lead at PbB levels that may not have exceeded 3,36 pmol/litre (70 pg/dl) and a PbB at the time of clinical assessment of at least 1,92 pmol/litre (40 pg/dl). 170 DUP040006650 For some data/analytica! purposes, age-specific PbB levels may be more appropriate than a lifetime average. 9.3 Relationship between exposure and dose The most widely used surrogate for the absorbed dose is whole PbB concentration. The relationship between PbB level and lead intake is curvilinear over a wide range of PbB values. On the basis of a single study of 17 infante, the relationship between PbB level and lead intake from food has been determined to be 0.18 pg lead/d! blood per p,g lead intake per day for a median PbB level of approximately 10 pg/dl. Most studies of the relationship between PbB level and lead exposures apply to a single ^ environmental source, i.e. air, food, water or soil/dust A summary of the relationship between PbB level and lead intake from individual media is given in Table 9.1. Table 9.1. Representative relationships of blood lead level (median blood lead level: 10 pg/dl) to Intake of lead for the general population*1 Medium Air1* Water Food Dust6 Soil6 Children 1.92 pg/m3 per pg/m3inUl,1* (0,09 pmpl) 0.16 pg/dl per pg/day intake (0.01 pmol) 1.8 pg/dl per 1000 pg/g intake (0.09 pmol) 2.2 pg/dl per 1000 pg/g intake (0.11 pmol) Adults 1.64 /pg/dl per pg/m3 intake (0.079 pmol) 0.6 pg/dl per pg/litre intake ((0.003 pmol) 0.04-0.06 pg/dl per pg/day intake (0.002-0.003 pmol) a These data are provided for illustrative purposes, recognizing that the relationships are curvilinear in nature, and are broad guidelines that will not apply at lower or higher levels of exposure. 6 A value of between 3 and 5 pg/dl per pg/rri3 intake is obtained when one considers indirect contribution through deposition on soil/dust. The relationship of air lead to blood lead concentrations in occupational settings is best described by a curvilinear relationship having slopes between 0,02 and 0.08 pg/dl per pg/m3 air. The slope is variable but lower than that found for humans in the general environment (1.6-1.9 pg/dl per pg/m3 air). 167 DUP040006651 9.4 Surrogate measures of dose 9.4.1 Blood Whole PbB values are widely used as a measure of absorbed dose. However, it is believed that plasma lead concentrations may better reflect the "active" fraction of lead in blood and define the relationship between blood lead and tissue or organ accumulation (and effect), although there is little experimental data (because of analytical limitations). Blood lead is distributed between plasma and the erythrocyte, with less than 5 per cent being in the plasma; most of the lead is bound to haemoglobin. Venous and capillary blood levels are generally (equivalent provided that the sampling technique has been demonstrated to be adequate. 9.4.3 Urine Urinary measurements of lead concentration are of limited value, although they are used occasionally as a screening test for occupational population groups. 9.4.3 Bone Bone lead may be measured by nori-irivasive X-ray fluorescence but it is limited in sensitivity at present 9A.4 Tooth .1 Shed deciduous teeth have been used to provide an index of exposure in early childhood. tooth, dentine or circumpulpar dentine) is analysed. 9.4.5 Hair Hair is not useful as a measurement of lead exposure. 9.5 Biochemical effects of lead 9.5.1 Haem synthesis Evaluation of the quality of analytical data is an important aspect in considering reports describing effects attributed to lead. It should be noted that much of the data presented in this area has not been as vigorously scrutinized as, for example, psychometric study data. An increase in EP in children occurs between PbB levels of 0.72 and 1.2 pmol/litre (15-25 jig/dl), increases in EP can be detected in men when the PbB level Is above 1.20-1.44 pmol/litre (25-30 txg/di); and in women when it is above 0.96-1.44 pmol/litre (20-30 pg/dl). It should be noted that the effect of lead on haem is confounded by low iron status. 168 DUP040006652 ii* t. ,,s, ,, iJLI ... ' * ':., ' Lead is an ubiquitous element detected in all environmental media. However, natural sources contribute only a small fraction of the amounts of lead found in air, food, water and dust. 'The majority of lead in these media arises from automobile and industrial emissions and from the use of lead-containing solder and paints. Adults and older children receive the largest proportion of lead intake from foods, whereas for young children dust, soil and food all make significant contributions to the total lead intake. The major contributions to lead in soil and outdoor dust are from the combustion of fossil fuels (principally leaded petrol), stationary sources such as smelters, and peeling and flaking of lead-based paint. 9.1.1 General population exposure In the absence of specific stationary sources of lead, concentrations in ambient air are directly related to the density of traffic and whether iead is still utilized as an additive in petrol. Reduction or elimination of lead in petrol in those countries which have instituted regulations has resulted in a decline by as much as eight-fold in ambient air concentrations of lead. Levels of lead in indoor air are affected by the presence of cigarette smoke and dust from Jead-painted surfaces. Without such sources, air lead levels indoors are about 60 per cant of those in ambient air. For most adults, the total daily exposure to lead is via food, water and air. For infants aged up to five months, formula or breast milk, and water are the main sources of lead. In children, an additional source of exposure is dust and soils. Absorption is dependent on the chemical form of lead, type of soil and particle size (bioavailability). Lead intake may be augmented from unusual sources such as folk remedies, cosmetics and hobby activity. Community contamination and workplace practices may contribute to lead exposure. Food (including drinking-water and beverages) is the major source of iead exposure for the general population. Infants and children may receive an added lead burden from soil and dust. The most significant foodstuffs vary from country to country. In areas still utilizing lead-soidered cans, levels of lead are substantially higher. Depending upon life-styles, there may be significant oral intake of lead from some alcoholic beverages and due to the leaching of lead from iowtemperature-fired ceramic containers. Most drinking-water supplies contain lead levels of less than 5 pg/litre when they leave the treatment plant.1 However, where: the water is known to be piumbo-solvent, up to 40 per cent of the samples may exceed 100 pg/Iitre in homes where lead solder, lead pipes and/or brass fixtures have been use'd: Absorption of iead from the lung is a. function of particle size and pulmonary deposition pattern. Small particles (< 0.5 pm) characteristic of ambient air will be deposited deepty in the 1 The content of this chapter nas been approved by an JPGS Task Group, 1-6 February 1993. During technical editing corrections may be! made to numbers pirated, however, these will not affect the conclusions as shown. 165 DUP0400Q6653 These effects have often been found to be reversible after cessation of exposure, depending on the age and duration of exposure. The effect of lead on the heart is only indirect and occurs via the autonomic nervous system; it has no direct effect on the myocardium. The collective evidence from population studies in aduits indicates very weak associations between blood lead concentration and systolic or diastolic blood pressure. Given the difficulties of allowing for relevant confounding factors, a causal relationship cannot be established from these studies. There is no evidence to suggest that any" association of blood lead concentration with blood pressure is of major health importance. Lead is known to cause proximal renal tubular damage, characterized by generalized aminoaciduria, f.ypnphc-phaieerriv relative hyperphosphaturia and glycosuria accompanied by nuclear inclusion Indies, mitucnondnal changes and cytomogaly of the proximal tubular epithelial cel's. Tubular effects am noted after relatively short-term exposures and are generally reversib'e. whereas sclerotic changes and interstitial fibrosis, resulting in decreased kidney function anc oos?'ble renal failure, require chronic exposure to high lead levels. Increased risk from nephrepethy was noted in workers with a PbB level of over 3.0 pmoi/iitre (about 60 pg/dl). Rena! effects have been recently seen among general populations where more sensitive indicators of function were' measured. The reproductive effects of lead in the male are limited to sperm morphology anci count, in the female"some adverse pregnancy outcomes have been attributed to lead. Lead does not appear to have deleterious effects on skin, muscle or the immune system. Except in the case of the rat, lead does not appear to be related to the development of tumours. 1.8 Evaluation of human he^th risk - Conclusions Lead adversely affects several organs and organ systems, with subcellular changes and neurodevelopmental effects appearing to be the most sensitive. An association between blood lead arid hypertension (biood pressure) has been reported. Lead produces a cascade of effects on the haem body pool and affects haem synthesis. However, some of these effects are not considered adverse. Calcium homeostasis is affected thus interfering with other cellular processes. a) The most substantial evidence from cross-sectional and prospective studies of populations with PbB levels generally below 1.2 pmoi/iitre (25 pg/dl) relates to detriments in IQ. It is important to note that such observational studies cannot provide definitive evidence of a causal relationship with lead exposure. However, the size Of the apparent IQ effect as assessed at 4 years and above, is a deficit between 0 and 5 points (on a scale with a standard deviation of 15) for each 0.48 pmol/litre (10 pg/dl) increment in PbB level, with a likely apparent effect size of between 1 and 3 points. At PbB ieveis above 1.2 pmoi/iitre (25 pg/dl), the relationship between PbB and JQ may differ. Estimates of effect size are group averages and only apply to the individual child in a probabilistic manner. Existing epidemioiogicaf studies do not provide definitive evidence of a threshold. Below the PbB range cf 0.48 to 0.72 pmoi/iitre (10-15 pg/dl), the effect of confounding variables and limits in the precision of analytical and psychometric measurements increases the uncertainty attached to any estimate of effect. However, there is some evidence of an association below this range. 163 DUP040006655 b) Animal studies provide support for a causal relationship between iead and nervous system effects, reporting deficits in cognitive functions which occur at PbB levels as low as 0.53-0.72 pmoi/iitre (11-15 pg/dl) and which can persist weli beyond the termination of iead exposure. c) Reduction in peripheral nerve conduction velocity may occur with PbB levels as low function (electrocardiographic R-R interval variability} may be affected at an average PbB level of approximately 1.68 pmol/iitre (35 pg/di). The risk of lead nephropathy"is increased in workers with PbB levels above 2.88 pmol/iitre (60 pg/dl). However, recent studies using giore sensitive indicators of renal function suggest renal effects at lower levels of lead exposure. d) Lead exposure is associated with a small increase in blood pressure. The likely order cf m&c.'iitudo fc th?i for r-rr/ two-frk! increase in PbB (for example, from 0.8 to 1.6 pmol/iitre, i.e. 16.61 83..? up/dl), there is a mean 1 mmHg increase in systolic biood pressur. "Hie sssoniaioo v ith diastolic pressure is of a similar but smaller magnitude. How-gwr, there is doubt regarding whether these statistical associations are really due to an effect cf lead exposure or are an artifact due to confounding factors: e) Some but not all epidemiological studies show a dose-dependent association of pre term delivery and some indices of fetal growth and maturation at PbB levels of 0.72 pmoi/lifre (15 pg/dl) or more. f) The evidence for carcinogenicity of lead and several Inorganic lead compounds in humans is inadequate. g) Effects of iead on a number of enzyme systems and biochemical parameters have been demonstrated. The PbB levels, above which effects are demonstrable with current techniques for the parameters that may have clinical significance, are all greater than 0.96 pmol/iitre (20 pg/di. Some effects on enzymes are demonstrable at lower PbB levels, but the clinical significance is uncertain, 164 DUP040006656 Levels of lead in drinking-water sampled at the source are usually below 5 ng/litre. Ho wever, water taken from taps (faucets) in homes where lead is present in the plumbing can contain levels in excess of 100 jxg/litre, particularly after the water has been standing in the pipes for some hours* The level of dietary exposure to lead depends upon many lifestyle factors, including foodstuffs consumed, processing technology, use of lead solder, lead levels in water, and use of lead glazed ceramics* For infants and children, lead in dust and soil often constitutes a major exposure pathway. Lead levels in dust depend upon such factors as the age and condition of housing, the use of leadbased paints, lead in petrol and urban density. The intake of lead will be influenced by the age and behavioural characteristics of the chiid and bioavailabiiity of lead in the source material. Inhalation is the dominant pathway for lead exposure of workers in industries producing, refining, using or disposing of lead and lead compounds. During an 8-h shift, workers can absorb as much as 400 pg lead, in addition to the 20-30 pg/day absorbed from food, water and ambient air; significant intake may occur from ingestion of large inhaled particulate materia!. 1J Kinetics and metabolism In laboratory animals and humans Lead is absorbed in humans and animais following inhalation or ingestion; percutaneous absorption is minimal in humans. Depending upon chemical speciation, particle size, and solubility in body fluids, up to 50 per cent of the inhaled lead compound may be absorbed. Some inhaled particulate matter (larger than 1 pm) is swallowed following mucociliary clearance from the respiratory tract. In experimental animals and humans, absorption of lead from the gastrointestinal tract is influenced by the physicochemical nature of the ingested material, nutritional status, and type of diet consumed. In adult humans approximately 10 per cent of the dietary lead is absorbed; the proportion is higher under fasting conditions. However, in infante and young children as much as 50 per cent of dietary lead is absorbed, although absorption rates for lead from dusts/soils and paint chips can be lower depending upon the bioavailabiiity. Diets that are deficient in calcium, phosphate, selenium or zinc may lead to increased lead absorption, iron and vitamin D also affect absorption of lead. Blood lead (PbB) levels are used as a measure of body burden and absorbed (internal) doses of lead. The relationship between blood lead and concentration of lead in exposure sources is curvilinear. Once it has been absorbed, lead is not distributed homogeneously throughout the body. There is rapid uptake into blood and soft tissue, followed by a slower redistribution to bone. Bone accumulates iead over much of the human life span and may serve as an endogenous source of lead. The half-life for lead in blood and other soft tissues is about 28-36 days and much longer in the various bone compartments. The percentage retention of iead in body stores is higher in children than aduits. Transfer of iead to the human fetus occurs readily throughout gestation. Blood iead is the most commonly used measure of lead exposure. However, techniques are now available for measuring lead in teeth and bone, although the kinetics; are not fully understood. 161 1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals; in vitro system In all species of experimental animals studied, including non-human primates, lead has been shown to cause adverse effects in several organs and organ systems, including the haemopoietic, nervous, renal, cardiovascular, reproductive and immune systems. Lead also affects bone and has been shown to be carcinogenic in rats and mice. Despite kinetic differences between experimental animal species and humans, these studies provide strong biological support and plausibility for the findings in humans. Impaired ieaming/memory abilities have been reported in rats with PbB levels of 0.72-0.96 pmoles/titre (15-20 pg/di) and in non-human primates at PbB levels not exceeding 0.72 pmol/litre (15 pg/dl). in addition, visual and auditory impairments have been reported in experimental animal studies. Renal toxicity in rats appears to occur at a PbB level in excess of 2.88 pmol/litre (60 pg/dl), a value similar to that reported to initiate renal effects in. humans. Cardiovascular effects have been seen in rats after chronic low-ievel exposures i resulting in PbB levels of 0.24-1.92 pmol/litre (5-$0 pg/dl). Tumours,have not been shown to occur below the maximum tolerated dose of 200 mg lekd (as lead acetate) per litre of drinking-water. This is the maximum dose level not associated with other morphological or functional changes. 1.7 Effects on humans In humans, lead can result in a wide range of biological effects depending upon the level and duration of exposure. Effects at the subeeliular level, as well as effects on tie overall functioning of the body, have been noted and range from inhibition of enzymes to the production of marked morphological changes and death. Such changes occur over a broad range pf doses, the developing human generally being more sensitive than the aduit. Lead has been shown to have effects on many biochemical processes; in particular, effects on haem synthesis have been studied extensively in both adults and children. Increased levels of serum erythrocyte protoporphyrin and increased urinary excretion of coproporphyrin and 5-aminoiaevulinic acid are observed when blood lead concentrations are elevated. Inhibition of the enzymes 5-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase and dihydrobiopterin reductase are observed at lower levels. The effects of lead on the haemopoietic system result in decreased haemoglobin synthesis, and anaemia has been observed in children at blood lead concentrations above 1,92 pmol/litre (40 pg/dl). For neurological, metabolic and behavioura! reasons, children are more vulnerable to the effects of lead than adults. Both prospective and cross-sectional epidemiological studies have been conducted to assess the extent to which environmental lead exposure affects CNS-based psychological functions. Lead has been shown to be associated with impaired neurobehavioural functioning in children. Impairment of psychological and neurobehavioural functions has been found after long term lead exposure of workers. Furthermore, electrophysiological parameters have been shown to be useful indicators of subdinical lead effects in the CN$. Peripheral neuropathy has long been known to be caused by long-term high-level exposure at the workplace. Slowing of nerve conduction velocity has been found at lower levels. 162 DUP040006658 IPGS ASSESSMENT OF THE RISK. OF LEAD: CHAPTERS 1 AND 9 OF THE TASK GROUP-APPROVED 'd r a ,f t : i," ' Summary knd Conclusions1 1 This monograph focuses on the risks to human health associated with exposure to ietd and inorganic lead compounds. Emphasis has been given to data which have become available since the publication of Environmental Health Criteria 3: Lead (WHO 1977). The environmental effects of lead are discussed in Environmental Health Criteria 85: Lead - Environmental Aspects (WH0 1989), 1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods Lead is a. soft, silvery grey metal, melting at 327.5 C. It is highly resistant to corrosion, but is soluble in nitric and hot sulfuric acids. The usual valence state in inorganic lead compounds is +2. Solubilities in water van/, lead sulfide and lead oxides being poorly soluble and the nitrate, chlorate and chloride salts reasonably soluble in cold water. Lead also forms salts with such organic acids as lactic and acetic, and stable organic compounds such as tetraethyllead and tetramethyliead. The most commonly used methods for the analysis of low concentrations of lead in biological and environmental materials are flame, graphite furnace, and inductively coupled plasma and atomic absorption spectroscopy and anode stripping voltammetry. Depending on sample pretreatment, extraction techniques and analytical instrumentation, detection limits of 0.12 iimoles ead/!itre blood (2.49 jjLg/dl) can be achieved. However, reliable results are obtained only when specific procedures are followed to minimize the risk of contamination during sample collection, storage, processing and analysis. 1,2 Sources of human exposure Levels of lead in the earth's crust are about 20 mg/kg. Lead in the environment may derive from either natural or anthropogenic sources. Natural sources of atmospheric lead include geological weathering and volcanic emissions and h$ve been estimated to produce 19 000 tonnes/year, compared to an estimate of 126 000 tonnes/year emitted to the air from the mining, smelting and consumption of over 3 million tonnes of lead per year. Atmospheric lead concentrations of 50 pg/m3 have been found In remote areas. Background levels of lead in soil range between 10 and 70 mg/kg, and a mean level near roadways of 138 mg/kg has been reported. Present levels of lead in water rarely exceed a few microgrammes per litre; the natural concentration of lead in surface water has been estimated to be 0.02 ug/iitre. 4 1 The content erf this chapter has been approved by an IPCS Task Group, 1-6 February 1993. During technical editing corrections may be made to numbers quoted, however, these will not affect the conclusions shown. 159 DUP040006659 Lead and its compounds may enter the environment at any point during mining, smelting, processing, use, recycling or disposal. Major uses are in batteries, cables, pigments, petrol (gasoline) additives, solder and steel products. Lead and lead compounds are also used in solder applied to water distribution pipes and to seams of cans used to store foods, in some traditional remedies, in bottle closures for alcoholic beverages and in ceramic glazes and crystal tableware. In countries where leaded petrol is still used the major air emission is from mobile and stationary sources of petrol combustion (urban centres). Areas in toe vicinity of lead mines and smelters are subject to high-levels of air emissions. Airborne lead can be deposited on soil and water, reaching humans through the food chain and in drinking-water. Atmospheric lead is also a major source of lead in household dust 1.3 Environmental transport, distribution and transformation The transport and distribution of lead from fixed, mobile and natural sources is primarily via air. Most lead emissions are deposited near the source, although some particulate matter (< 2 pm) is transported over long distances and results in the contamination of remote sites such as arctic glaciers. Airborne lead can contribute to human exposures by toe contamination of food, water and dust, as well as through direct inhalation. The removal of airborne lead is influenced by atmospheric conditions and particulate size. Large amounts of lead may be discharged to soil and water. However, such material tends to remain localized because of the poor solubility of lead compounds in water. Lead deposited in water, whether from air or through run-off from soils, partitions rapidly between sediment and aqueous phase, toe rate depending upon pH, salt content, and the presence of organic chelating agents. Above pH 5.4, hard water may contain about 30 pg lead/litre and soft water about 500 pg lead/litre. Very little lead deposited on soil is transported to surface or ground water except through erosion or geochemical weathering; it is normally quite tightly bound (chelated) to organic matter. Airborne lead can be directly transferred to biota or through uptake from soil. Animals can be exposed to lead directly through grazing and soil ingestion or by inhalation. There is little biomagnification of inorganic lead through the food chain. 1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure In the general non-smoking adult population, the major exposure pathway is fromfood and water. Airborne lead may contribute significantly to exposure, depending upon such factors as use of tobacco, occupation, proximity to motorways, lead smelters, etc., and leisure activities (for example, arts and crafts, firearm target practice). Food, air, water and dust/soil are the major potential exposure pathways for infants and young children. For infants up to 4 or 5 months, air, milk formulae and water are the significant sources of lead exposure. Levels of lead found in air, food, water and soil/dust vary widely throughout the world and depend upon the degree of industrial development, urbanization and lifestyle factors. Ambient air levels of over 10 pg/m3 have been reported in urban areas near a smelter, whereas lead levels below 0.2 pg/m3 have been found in cities where leaded petrol is no longer used. Lead intake from air can, therefore, vary from less than 4 pg/day to more than 200 pg/day. 160 DUP040006660 lead; increasing state and local support; and providing more money to support abatement in low and moderate income households, HUD estimated that the total cost of testing and abatement in high-priority hazard homes would be about $8 to 10 billion annually over ten years. The costs could be lowered substantially by integrating abatement with other renovation activities. In 1992, HUD awarded $47.7 million to states and communities for the abatement of lead-based paint in privately-owned low and middle income housing. The agency plans to award an additional $90 million in 1993* The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a strategy to reduce lead exposures "to the fullest extent practicable, with particular interest in reducing the risk to children, to avoid, high blood lead levels" (6). Two specific objectives of the lead strategy are (a) to significantly reduce the incidence of PbB levels above 10 j*g/d! in children, and (b) to reduce lead exposures that are anticipated to pose risks to children, the general public, or the environment. EPA aim's to accomplish these goals by identifying geographical "hot spots," implementing a lead pollution prevention programme, strengthening environmental standards, developing and providing information on cost-effective abatement technologies, encouraging the availability of en>' rcnmcrtolly safe recycling, implementing a public information programme, aggressively enforcing" existing environmental standards, and increasing research in many of these areas. Under Title X, EPA is mandated to promulgate regulations ensuring that those engaged in abatement activities are trained and, that training programmes are certified, to establish standards for]abatement activities, to promulgate model State programmes from compliance with training and accreditation regulation, to establish a laboratory accreditation programme, to establish a dearinjghoiise, for dissemination of information, to promulgate regulations for the disclosure of leac hazards pt property transfer, to conduct a study on the hazards of renovation and remodeling activities! and to develop regulations to identify lead hazards in paint, dust, and soil. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has continued with its programme to identify and mitigate sources df lead in, the diet, particularly those in fopdS consumed by infants, children and pregnant! women. Voluntary efforts as well as reduced action levels have resulted in reducing lead exposure!^ from food cans1 and from lead-glazed ceramic ware. .Other sources of dietary lead for which regulatory measures1 are being introduced include wine, dietary supplements, crystal ware, food additivedand bottled water. Documents Referenced: (1) US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control (1991). QDC Lead Statement: Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children. October. (2) Silbergeld, E.K., Schwartz, J. and Mahaffey, K. (1988), "Lead aid Osteoporosis: Mobility of Lead from Bone in Post-Menopausal Women." Environmental Research 47: 79-94. (3) Barltrop, D. (1969). "Transfer of Lead to the Human Foetus." in: Barltrop, D. and Buriand, W.L. (eds.), Mineral Metabolism in Pediatrics, Davis Co., Philadelphia, pp. 135151, (4) Landrigan, PJ. (1989). "Toxicity of Lead at Low Dose." British Journal of Industrial Medicine 46 :593-598. 157 DUP040006661 US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control (1991). Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Childhood Lead Poisoning. February. US Environmental Protection Agency (1991). US Environmental Protection Agency Strategy for Reducing Lead Exposures. February. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (1991). Comprehensive and Workable Plan for the Abatement of Lead-Based Paint in Privately Owned Housing: Report to Congress. December. US Environmental Protection Agency (1989). Air Quality Criteria tor Lead: Supplement to the 1986, Addendum. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, EPA Report No. EPA/60Q-8-89-G49F, 1990a. -j ! US Environmental Protection Agency (1986). Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, EPA Report No. EPA-600/8-83-028aF dF, 198k. Agency for Toxic Substance Disease Registry (1988), The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the USA: Report to Congress. July. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1991). Request for Assistance in Preventing Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers. NSQSH Alert, August. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and Occupational Safety and Health Agency (1991). Working with Lead in the Construction Industry. April. US Consumer Product Safety Commission (1990). What You Should Know About Leadbased Paint in Your Home. September. 158 DUP040006662 Childhood lead poisoning is widely recognized in the US as the most widespread and preventable childhood health problem associated with environmental exposures. In 1984, an estimated 2.4 million (17 per cent) of children living in Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas in the US had PbB levels above 15 jig/dl (10). Though widely perceived as a problem of inner city minority children, in fact, lead poisoning in the US affects children from all areas and from all socio economic groups, Adults also face health risks from lead, possibly at low PbB levels. NIOSH has issued ar health alert to construction workers warning them to the possibility of adverse health effects resulting from long-term, low-level exposure (11). NIOSH has committed to a goal of eliminating occupational exposures that result in workers having blood lead levels greater than 25pg/dl (11). Though the average level oflead exposure has dropped, the prevalence ofpoisoning andpopulation exposures are still of concern. The percentage of children with elevated blood iead has declined substantially over the last twenty years, with average PbB levels dropping from over 15 to about 5 jig/dl (1). The US has made important strides in reducing exposures to iead, notably through reductions of lead in gasoline; in food can solder, in atmospheric deposition in soil/dust and on food crjops; and in new residential paint (1). However, despite progress in reducing average jeab exposures, current iead exposures among children at risk remain problematic, especially! since there is little margin of safety between current blood lead levels and levels now believed to cause effects in children. Though the effects of lead at low levels are not as severe as those at high-levels, a larger number of children are affected at these levels, making these exposures an important public health concern (10). Household dust derived from deteriorated lead-based paint is the most important source of high-lavs! lead exposures in the US. Because lead is a multi-media pollutant, all sources contribute to the overall problem. However, there is general consensus that deteriorated leadbased paint (applied prior to actions taken to ban the use of lead in residential paint) is the major source of high-dose iead poisoning in US children. Other sources contribute to overall exposure, but such paint is associated with highest exposures (5). Millions of private homes in the US with lead-based paint continue to be occupied by families with small children, and there is no apparent correlation between incidence of lead-based paint,and income of the household (7), Notably, many houses with lea^-based paint are, rental units that will be rented to many different families over the years. Thus, a single house with deteriorated lead-based paint can be the source of exposure for many children (&): Other important sources of lead exposure include soil/dust; drinking water; occupational exposures; airborne lead from point sources (for example, smelters); hazardous waste sites; and products containing lead. Lead-contaminated soil and dust are widespread, and are often associated with structures containing lead-based paint (such as houses, bridges, and water tanks). Drinking water can. be contaminated with lead that can leach from pipes carrying water to homes, from lead-soldered pipe joints, and from lead in brass and bronze plumbing fittings and fixtures. Given the actions taken to date to control other sources of lead, in some areas of the US drinking water remains an important source of iead exposure, especially to children. US regulatory activities, such as decreases of lead in gasoline and in residential paint and the voluntary programme by the domestic food industry to discontinue use of lead soider in food cans, have resulted in significant reductions in average levels of iead exposure. Nevertheless, the US still considers; current levels of iead exposure to be an important public health problem, especially in high risk communities. In recognition of the extent and severity of iead exposure in 156 DUP040006683 ^MaaWrKaaBSaaatiB the US, various Federal government agencies and bodies have initiated further activities to reduce lead exposures in a variety of settings. These activities include: The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) have lowered the level of PbB of concern in children from 25 ng/di to 10 pg/di (1). Recognition of this level of concern in the United States dalels back to 1988 (8)<10). CDC .has also 'identified an agenda for the first five years of a 20-year effort to reduce the number of lead-poisoned children in the US, including: screening high-risk communities, with appropriate environmental and medical follow-up for poisoned children; conducting studies to determine the impact of interventions, on children's blood lead levels; and establishing national surveillance for children with elevated PbB levels (5). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has been involved in so'cral s'-twltics rolsted to the prefer,tier, of occupe*cnsl exposures to lead. These include the f>i.blios*mn cf an alert proyldinq rconnrmndstionc for preventin'! load poisoning during blasting-, sending, cutting, burning r.r weMing of bridges and other steel ptruotorcc costed with lead paint (11). MiOSM collaborated **sth the Gonypetforo! Sefety and Heeffh Administration (OSHA) or gildelincs for the prevention of toad exposure tor construction workers (12), NIOSH has also committed to n gos! rf e-iminattoo occupational pyp'.surr-r tost rp'--'t Ir wori'ers having blood lead Ieve!c greater then 25 jjxi/dl. Rnallv, NIOSH h cu-ronf!1/ wiyetinp hesRh da* in the development of criteria for a recommended occupational standard fer toad. The Occupational Safety and Health /riministraiicn (OSHA) of the US Department of Labor ha = '-rtelilichcd envircnmnitw s-nri t-'chpics stenrir.'-d- fv load-using industries. Standards take ihe form of both permicihle workplace air conte mir.ante end permissible blood levels in workers. En crcnmentf1 <`nd hiolcgica1 monitoring must tm conducted by the employer. Elevated blood le'to !='=.(<- y require the rcmo'al c< an indivi'Ae! f'om the work place. The current Permissible Exocrun* Level 'PEL) generally limrs err csnc<=-n*rariois of lead to 50 p.g/m3. OSHA's genem1 md"sto' load 'tendprrj nlro ''cqiikop cmir'^r? v*|'r have employees exposed to lead above an sc ion Ic v pI ot rj.O |ig/m' to irctoment a r tooremrre that includes provisions for methods of compi'arce, medico- survoiilmc', cxnorurp monitoring, treinng, regulated areas, respiratory protection protective '`tori clothing end rquipmen* ncucp'^ecping, hygiene facilities and practices, signs and !-bsk reoordS'eep-ng end the need to limi* expo' ures below 50 jxg/m3. OSHA's PEL for lead in the ncnctnjetton industry is 2^0 (vt'm3. Unger Title V OSHA is required to promulgate interim final standards, tor pccupationai exposure to lead in the construction industry. The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) Lead Poisoning Project seeks to prevent lead poisoning of consumers. In 1990, CPSC published a consumer safety alert/brochure on lead paint in the'homie (13), based on the HUD abatement interim guidelines. CPSC is also evaluating lead test kits for safety, efficacy, and consumer-friendliness! These kits are potential screening devices that rnay be used by the consumer to detect lead in paint and other materials. The Commission staff is, also evaluating recent data on, Isiad toxicity to determine the need to lower the existing allowable lead limit for paint (currently 0 06 per cent by weight in dried paint film). In support of this 'effort, national marketplace samples of residential paint are being analysed for lead. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) submitted to Congress a comprehensive plan to address Ihe lead-based paint problem in private housing (7). Activities include updating the lead-based paint regulations in HUD programmes; updating regulations for dealing wito lead-based saint in Federally owned property; providing support: for iocal screening programmes; increasing public education; supporting research to reduce the cost and improve the reliability of testing and abatement; supporting research on the cost-effectiveness of various abatemen* techniques; evaluating strategies to address exterior soil toad and dust and interior dust 156 DUP040006664 Exposure The average blood lead levels in the population as a whole have declined substantially over the past decade by 4 to 5 per cent per annum. Figures from the last national survey of blood lead levels in 1987 (DOE 1990) gave a geometric mean in the region of 6,9 to 9.7 pg/dl blood lead for adults and 7.1 to 7.5 pg/dl blood lead for children. Recent small scale local investigations indicate that the trend of declining average blood lead is continuing. Blood lead levels can be influenced by numerous factors, most are related to the sources of exposure. A report titled "Lead in the Environment and its Significance to Man", produced by the Department of the Environment in 1974, provided the first comprehensive summary of the exposure pathways to humans (DOE 1974). Several key sources of exposure were identified and a programme to' safeguard human health was outlined. These included lead in paint, petrol,,, drinking water and food. Subsequent action was later reviewed in the report of the Royal Commission ^Environmental Pollution (RCEP1983). Amongst the numerous recommendations whi ch the Royal Commission called for were, further reduction in the lead content of petrol leading to the phasing oilit of lead additives altogether, reductions in the use of lead in household paints and continued remedial programmes of water treatment and lead pipe replacement. The various policy objectives! arid risk reduction measures taken are detailed in the summary of United Kingdom actions. References Department of the Environment, UK (1983). Lead in the Environment: The Government Response to the Ninth Report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Pollution Paper No. 19. HMSO, London. 21 pp. Medical Research Council (1983). The Neuropsychological Effects of Lead in Children: A Review of the Research 1979-83. 22 pp. Medical Research Council (1988), The Neuropsychological Effects ofLead in Children: A Review of the Research 1984-88. 23 pp. Department of the Environment, UK (1990). UK Blood Lead Monitoring Programme 1984-1987: Results for 1987. Pollution Report Mo. 28. HMSO, London. Department of the Environment, UK (1974). Lead in the Environment and its Significance to Man: A Report of an Inter-Departmental Working Group on Heavy Metals. Pollution Paper No. 2, HMSO, London. 47 pp. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, UK (1983). Ninth Report - Lead Jn the Environment Cmnd 8852. HMSO London. 184 pp. 153 DUP040006665 UNITED STATES POSITION ON CURRENT RISKS FROM LEAD Agencies in the United States concerned with the health and environmental effects of lead exposure, including the US Environmental Protection Agency, the Centers far Disease Control, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department, of Housing and Urban Development the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the National Institute far Occupational Safety and Health, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, have drawn a number of conclusions regarding current lead exposure: Lead exposure is widespread. A combination of factors (for example lead's physical characteristics and cost) make lead an attractive material far a wide variety of applications; therefore^ lead provides large economic benefits to its users. However, lead's widespread use has resulted in large amounts of lead being deposited to air, land and water. Lead is an elemental pollutant that doesyiot disintegrate. Thus.jthe total amount of'iead pollutants''resulting from human activity will increase with time no matter how iittie additional lead is added to the environment. The current production, use and,, disposal of lead are highly regulated with demonstrably effective results. However, bepause of its previous widespread use and persistency lead exposure is a pervasive problem, affecting a number of local populations. Lead is a powerful toxicant and produces adverse effects even at low levels. Lead is a poison the- cifc-cts 'irtuaiiy e-'ery system In "he body. Severe exposures can cause coma, conv.'Is'on? mo ritnth. Lower Ir-'d? cause get'orre -' ffects on the central nervous system, kidneys, rerrodudive system r,o blood production system (1), Children are particularly susceptible to 'cad pr'.'cning. Ploro lo^d (Ph") levels k i least as low as 10 to 15 jxg/dl are associated with decreased intelligence and stored ncsrotoaical development; lo,w levels have also been escooi'ied with deficit-, in nm-'-'tn, vitamin movholhm and effects on hearing. Chronic childhood load cvporuro may rn: produce clinical symptoms especially at lower levels, and many cases go undhonooed and untreated. Lead's nm'rctoglcnl effects on children are profound and are likely pe-sistent. In 190?., the Residential Lead based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992 was enacted (Title /i. Thi law pro`'ices he framework lor a national approach to reducie hazards from lead-based pain* exposure, pnmer'y in housing. !t il> establish a national infrastructure of trained worke-s. za'nipg programmes ar-d orotidenf issor-'lnries. end a public education! programme to reduce hazards front exposure to lead in paint in. the nation's housing stock. Lead is deposited in bone over the lifetime of the exposed individual. Long after exposure has ceased, some physiological event such as serious illness or pregnancy may release this stored lead from the bone and. produce .adverse health effects such as impaired hemoglobin synthesis, alteration in the central,and peripheral, nervous systems, hypertension, effects on male and female reproductive systems,, and damagS to the `developing fetus. These effects may occur at PbB levels below 50 jxg/dl and ;are likely to be dependent on the level and duration of exposure (2)(3)(11). Because of continuing epidemiological research that has detected adverse health effects from lead at levels Igwer than those previously regarded as toxic, the level of concern for childhood lead poisoning in the',US has been steadily lowered over the past twenty years. Scientific evidence showing effects of PbB levels below 25 jig/dl in children has recently compelled the Centers for Disease Control (CtiC) to lower the threshold for lead poisonrng prevention activities to PbB levels of 10 jxg/dl Earlier; EPA had lowered the level of concern to 10 pg/dl in 1986 (8) and ATS DR identified the same level of concern In the 1988 report to Congress on childhood lead poisoning {10), ' ' '' ' ' 154 DUP040006666 STATEMENT ON CURRENT RISKS FROM LEAD Nature of Concern for Lead Environment The main general risk of lead was the fine dispersion in the environment by oar traffic and the interrelated food intake by man and animals. However, this main source is rapidly decreasing in Switzerland (1984: 510 tonnes lead in fuel; 1990: 290 tonnes; 1995: 130 tonnes; 2000: 20, tonnes.) Lead emission of municipal waste incinerators is decreasing due to extended flue gas treatment. The remaining main source of lead will be the metalworking industry, which is of local concern. Due to the use of wine capsules, about 200 tonnes of lead is found in urban solid waste. The general population exposure is strongly decreasing since the last decade. This is shown by analysing food and pottery and by monitoring human blood levels of lead (FOEFL, 1992). Workplace Although the classic sources of exposure to lead at the workplace have been eliminated or greatly reduced, for certain professions, for example battery manufacturing, repairing of steel constructions of the cable industry, lead still has to be regarded as a severe health problem. The occupational exposure limit value ("MAX-Wert") for lead and its compounds (except alkyl compounds) is at present 0.1 mg/m3. Children Recent results of epidemiological investigations indicate that blood lead concentrations of pregnant women as low as 10 to 15 jxg/dl may have a detrimental effect on the development of the central nervous system of the foetus. At present in Switzerland blood lead concentrations in women of child bearing age in most cases do not exceed this value. (Figure 45, Chapter 3) Lead in dust and soil is considered to contribute significantly to childhood lead exposure. The blood lead concentration of children is highly correlated with lead concentrations in dust and soil (playgrounds). Children -- especially young children -- show a high hand-to-mouth-behaviour, in addition, lead absorption in children i$ higher (40-60 per cent) than in adults (8-10 per cent). Prolonged exposure to the pollutant resulting in blood lead levels of 10 jjg/di and higher is known to lead to a reduction of IQ scores and behavioural difficulties in children. 151 DUP040006667 . THE umt.frKlM300M. VIEW :OF R1S&I: A|$0JAf10 WJfH EXPOSURE TO LEAD Introduction Lead ore is plentiful, accessible and simple to smelt. The metal is heavy, pliable and resistant to corrosion. It is easily melted down and re-used. These properties account for jts comprehensive use both traditionally in building, plumbing and shooting and in more modern applications like electrical insulation, radiation screening and battery manufacture. Even where substitutes are now preferred or required, artifacts from earlier times survive and are still in widespread use. The Government recognizes that the cumulative effect of centuries of use is that lead Is now one of the most widely dispersed of environmental pollutants,. Moreover, so far as it is known, there is no harmless form into which lead can be converted in the environment, although the low solubility of many of its compounds limits their availability to living organisms. Thus, not only is there widespread human exposure to lead today but future generations too will be exposed to the lead which is already in the environment. Health Effects Frank lead poisoning is rare today and, where identified, is usually associated with exposure to specific localized sources. In recent years, however, there has been growing concern that lead in the body resulting from general environmental exposure may be harmful at concentrations which fall short of those at which clinical signs and symptoms appear. In 1983, in a response to the Royal Commission report on lead in the environment, the Government accepted that, despite considerable research, no level has been established at which lead can be assumed to be safe (DOE 1983). The Government also accepted that, given the health uncertainties and the particular characteristics of lead as a widespread tpxic pollutant, it was prudent to reduce exposure to it wherever practicable. Lead is a neurotoxin which can affect the nervous system of developing children at lower levels than in adults. Particular attention therefore has been paid to the possible health effects on the intelligence and behaviour of young children. A report from the Medical Research Council's Advisory Group on Lead and Neuropsychological Effects in Children (MRC 1983) suggested that any effects of lead at the exposure levels seen in the UK were very small and cannot be detected with any certainty. This conclusion was still largely applicable when the group reported again in 1988 but the evidence for an association between body burden and IQ was now stronger (MRC 1988). The group observed that whilst statistical associations detailed in the numerous studies reviewed were consistent with the hypothesis that low level lead exposure has a small negative effect on the performance of children in ability and attainment tests, the limitations of the epidemiological studies in drav/ing causal inferences were such that is was not possible to conclude that exposure to lead at current urban levels was definitely harmful. In view qf these conclusions it was recommended that it would be prudent to continue to reduce the exposure to environmental lead. 152 DUP040006668 qllllAfiY GENERAL STATEMENT The health risks connected with the intake of even relatively low doses of lead have gained growing attention worldwide in the last decades. Lead can cause neurotoxicological effects and other biochemically tangible alterations in the organism of young children. During pregnancy, lead can pass from the mother's blood circulation into the fetal organism without effective barrier. This leads to the recommendation of physiologists and toxicologists, that blood lead levels,, of adults should not exceed the concentration of 15 pg/100 ml and those of children and women in the age of possible pregnancy should not exceed 10 pm/IOD ml. The abatement of lead pollution was one of the first aims of German environmental policy in the 1960s. One of the first examples of environmental legislation was the Lead-in-peiroHaw (Berizinbleigesetz) of 1971. Germany has today a two-fold comprehensive regulatory scheme for reducing exposure to lead: A regulatory system covers all the production facilities (emissions to air, water, soil, including waste disposali as well as occupational health at the workplace), <* A consumer or product related system guarantees the safe use of industrial products. In those cases where scientifically proven limit values could not be identified, the "precautionary principle" (Vorsorgepn'nzip) has been the imminent rule and decisive basis for environmental standards, measures and controls. In application of the "precautionary principle" of the German environment policy, many measures were taken in order to reduce the exposure of humans and the environment against lead. Such measures ~ on a regulatory as well as on a voluntary agreement basis -- include: Restrictions of use of lead. These measures apply especially in cases where nonacceptable risks are proven. * Reduction of emissions of lead at production level. * Reduction of emissions of lead at user's level (i,e. voluntary agreements on collection and redelivery, incentives for a more effective recycling, etc.) * Safer treatment and deposition of lead-containing wastes. In some cases, proposed regulations concerning lead contents In commercial products could not be implemented In Germany with respect to tie rules of international free trade and regulations of the European Common Market, or their implementation was delayed (for example, introduction of unleaded gasoline). 149 DUP040006669 /IflUIJf ' ' ' : NATIONAL LEAD RISK STATEMENT/ RATIONALE FOR, RiRt|;R|iNCT!pN MEASURES Lead bioaccumulates and is, in general, very toxic. Current lead use involves dispersion into all environmental media and also gives rise to lead-containing waste that sooner or later wiil spread in the environment. Metallic lead in the environment will slowly transform and may jbfe taken up by organisms. Exposure to lead may give rise to a number of serious effects on health, especially in occupationally exposed workers and in children. Therefore, the use of lead should be phased out. In 1991, the Swedish Government decided that measures should be carried out in orderto phase out the use of lead on a voluntary basis, and in the long run ensure its cessation. Work to ensure that the phaseout is carried through is now on-going, both at the responsible authorities and within industry.i. i. 150 DUP040006670 . 4iiv ' iMiAflARK " . s r i^'4^A1i^Me n t s Lead has several harmful properties with respect to health and to the environment. Lead bioaccumulates and is in general very toxic. The current use today results in dispersion into ail environmental media. The use of lead in products and as a metal will sooner or later end in waste and thereby be spread into the environment. The emissions today are adding to the present contamination of the environment, and will if the use is continued give rise to serious problems in, lecture, ' ' "!l|` y * NORWAY ' OENERAi STATEMENT Lead has no known essential role in biological processes, but is a poison that is harmful both to the environment and human health. Lead is used in numerous products. Some of these applications give rise to direct emissions of lead to the environment, others give rise to a waste problem and a more slow contamination by lead/leaching of lead to water and soil. In the long run this leaching may add up to major pollution and health problems. Lead ought to be substituted wherever possible, It is most important to reduce/substitute the use of lead in those applications that give risk to direct emissions/spreading and that involve greatest risk of hazardous effects. Research and development should be encouraged to find acceptable substitutes for areas of application where they do not exist today, so that the use of lead in the long term can be phased out. in the meanwhile the amount of lead discharged to the environment should be minimized, and highly effective recollection and recovery systems for lead containing products should be established. 147 DUP040006671 FRANCE NOTE ON NATIONAL RISK REDUCTION STRATEGIES MiiHWi :l !a I .Public Heatth; Domestic Exposure An important action is undertaken jointly by the Ministries of Environment, Health and Housing, it concerns children's exposure to iead in decrepit dwellings. The main conclusions from a report concerning an action of decontamination of 59 apartments are given hereafter: Renovation gives rise to dust, necessitating relodging families. The majority of current industrial vacuum cleaners do not retain very tiny partieiies. Workers are quickly contaminated. Lead levels in blood can be threefold in a week. Biological monitoring is necessary. It is however not obligatory under current regulations. Moreover, working with partial or complete protective clothing reduces the working time to three or four consecutive hours. This is a cost factor and constitutes a major difficulty for small- and medium-size enterprises. Renovation of just apartments is not enough. Also, common areas need to be renovated. The agreement of all co-owners is necessary. The rubble contains important quantities of lead and needs to be notified to the authorities before disposal in an authorised landfill. Concerted effort within as well as outside Europe is necessary. 149 DUP040006672 ; CANADIAN POSITION STATEMENT: HEALTH RISKS DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE TO LEAD There are no known beneficial effects of lead in humans or other animals. Many adverse health effects are well documented for exposures to high lead levels, for example, anaemia, renal damage and encephalopathy. Recent research data have shown that adverse health effects may occur at low blood lead levels, previously thought not to result in adverse effects. Children are particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of low lead fevels; the effects observed include lower scores on indices of mental development and lower birth weights. Exposure, of pregnant women to lead may also result in exposure of the fetus and a higher risk of pre-term delivery. Recent conclusions regarding the health risks in Canada have been based largely on the weight of evidence of neurotoxicity, while recognizing controversy over some individual studies. in Canada, the responsibility for taking measures to reduce the health risks of lead is shared between several federal and provincial departments and organizations. To a large degree, the actions taken in this country result from initiatives of, or recommendations made by, the Health Protection Branch of the Department of Nations] Health and Welfare. In view of the recent healthrelated data, the Health Protection Branch has adopted the position that exposure to lead should be reduced as much as possible. The actions taken with respect to lead in automotive gasolines, for example, were based on the best health data available at the time, and an exposure assessment that indicated that 3040 per cent of children's blood lead was derived from lead in gasoline. In 1983, the Canadian government took action to reduce (starting in 1987) the maximum amount of lead that could be added to gasolines and, in 1986, decided to phase out lead in automotive gasolines by the end of 1992. Subsequently, the date of implementation was brought forward to December 1990. Exposures from ail media (air, food, water, soil, consumer products) are usually taken into account in determining the need for additional control measures; biood lead levels are used as an ind.cator of total exposure from all sources. Before implementing any regulatory initiatives, the health- based position of reducing exposure to lead "to the extent possible", needs to be reviewed in light of possible socio-economic impacts; the resulting approach can be a tempering of the proposed controls provided that no unreasonable risks from the health protection viewpoint result. Initiatives that have been implemented to reduce exposure to lead from ail sources in Canada range from regulatory measures to a programme of information and education arid include: the reduction anid ultimate phase-out of lead additives in automotive gasolines; redMetion in the permitted release of lead from ceramic ware; establishment of maximum limits for lead to certain foods, for example: tomatoes aid tomato products, beverages and infant formula; regulations which limit the amount of lead in protective coatings on furniture and other articles intended for children; on toys, equipment and other products for use by children in learning to play; and on pencils and artists' brushes; support of a voluntary industry phase-out of lead solder in food cans; 145 DUP040006673  support of a voluntary industry agreement to eliminate lead from all consumer paints; revision of the Canadian guideline for lead in drinking water from 50 pg/l to 10 jxg/l; implementation of recommendations made by the Department of National Health and Welfare that the use of lead solder in plumbing for drinking water be discontinued; and implementation of a national information programme to create an awareness of, and promote action to reduce, the health risks associated with removing leaded paint from older homes. There is evidence that the actions taken as a whole in Canada have had a significant health benefit; average blood lead concentrations in Canadian children have shown a steady decline, from about 19 pg/dl in 1972, to 12 pg/dl in 1984, and to 6 pg/d! in 1988. 146 DUP040006674 The Australian lead industry (1988) recommended a maximum occupational blood lead level of 70 jig/dl for males and 80 pg/dl for females, and in 1992 recommended a maximum of 85 pg/dl for males. The Australian lead industry further recommends concentrations of lead in blood at which return to occupational exposures may occur (50 p.g/dl for males, 25 jxg/di for females). Several states prohibit femaies and young males (under 16 or 18) from working in lead processes. The draft National Standard aiso provides for collection of information by States and Territories, from all workplaces where lead-risk jobs are carried out, regarding compliance andt monitoring results. This information will be used to review the Standard within four years. fnvirsnniental Exposures Sources of ecosystems or non-human exposure to lead include leaded petrol, battery breaking plants, lead smelters, lead shot, and lead fishing weights. These have impacted on water, air and soil quality and, in turn, have impacted on aquatic and terrestrial (including avian) life. With respect to strategies for reducing the risks of lead to ecosystems, the Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for the Assessment and Management of Contaminated Sites present a good strategy for reducing risks associated with lead contaminated soil. The Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters provide guidance to ensure protection of water systems from lead risks. In some States1, environmental audit systems provide mechanisms for the identification and subsequent reduction of unacceptable risks. The rationale for these measures include national concern for maintenance or improvement in water and soil quality, the need to minimize the risks of exposure of ecosystems to lead and similar activities being undertaken in other countries. Lead toxicosis, following ingestion of lead shot, has long been recognized as a significant cause of mortality in waterfowl. As in other countries, Australia has needed to deal with problems caused in certain areas through the use of lead shot in hunting. For example, following ingestion of lead shot, lead toxicosis has been observed in Magpie geese, Black swans, several species of duck (including Black duck and Musk duck) and Hardhead. The level of ingestion of lead shot and the concentration of lead in the tissue of several species of waterfowl has been shown to be above criteria used in other countries at which action is taken. To date, there has been no national approach to reducing risks of lead exposure to the non human environment. As is generally the case with chemicals management in Australia, action is initiated at the State level. Two States do not allow waterfowl hunting and two States have partial bans on the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting. Monitoring in three of the four States indicates that the level of ingestion of lead shot is equal to or greater than the levels set in the US at which management action is taken. In the remaining State, monitoring has indicated that there are no known incidents at this stage (refer to the following table for details). ! ' I"'"" . . ' ---- 1 States refers to either States or Territories. 143 DUP04OOO8675 CURRENT CONTROLS OVER USE OF LEAD SHOT M AUSTRALIA ^t ^e ^e Rr it Dr ^' South Australia Northern Territory Western Australia Australian Capital Territory Victoria , Remaining States Partial ban current, total ban possible by 1994. Uoe of lead shot ir banned in two of its four hunting roscvec and a complex- ban on use of lead shot for waterfowl is proposed from 1096. H'irtilT r.f ail *'r:lerfo,*'i harmed as of 1991. Hunting o* ncfp'o "'ild!ife banred. t Fr.!lo.>'ir,g conr'i^cns. p^posaisis to bare lead shot st some publ'o we-'isrdc frorr 1993, ban lead shot for '"'Flc-r'Ov"l from 1991 onv^arru throughout the Siatn and uncr-rtoke hunts-' ncucation and oomnini1'/ carnation omo-arrmes to reduce impact. Sihjaimr. bome moni'erod The rationale for these actions is primarily: domestic scientific studies that have demonstrated elevated concentrations of lead in waterfowl tissues; domestic and overseas studies that demonstrate the consequences of elevated concentrations of lead in waterfowl tissues; similar actions undertaken in overseas countries have proven to be effective in reducing the risk; and public pressure from conservation groups in some States. The rationale behind the total bans on all waterfowl hunting is based on animal welfare and conservation arguments and the type of shot is secondary. At some hunting grounds, steel shot is obligatory and consideration is being given elsewhere to voluntary use of steel and other non toxic shot. 144 DUP040006676 AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL RISK STATEMENT OF LEAD As a major producer of lead, Australia has some towns affected by point source emissions. There are also urban contamination problems, largely due to the population's heavy reliance on cars, the relatively high lead content of leaded petrol and the slower than expected change of the nation's car fleet to unleaded petrol. Public Health s The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) has promulgated National Guidelines for Lead in Drinking Water (50 pg/l), Lead in Blood (25 pg/di) and Lead in Air (1.5 jig/nf, averaged over three continuous months). These Guidelines are generally used by Australian States and Territories to determine lead risk reduction measures. The Lead in Drinking Water Guideline was developed In Australia, taking into consideration other national guidelines and the World Health Organization's 1984 revision of drinking water guidelines. The Lead in Blood and Lead in Air Guidelines were developed on the basis of an Australian Government report which examined the toxicology of lead in blood and air. The Lead in Blood and Lead in Air Guidelines are presently the subject of review. The revised values are anticipated to be available in the middle of 1993. The review will include; a commissioned research review of Australian ambient lead in air and lead in Wood, both in major metropolitan centres and in populations at particular risk from historical and present lead exposures from industrial activities. This report is expected to be available in August 1992; a review of national and international positions adopted by responsible legislatures and the rationale for their adoption of particular guideline valges; a socio-economic and environmental impact assessment taking into account revised draft recommended values. This phase will also include extensive public consultation to evaluate the actual or projected costs and associated benefits of any future revision. Given the high level of public interest, consultation will be important if the Guidelines are to be relevant to community expectations; hosting of an IPGS Working Group on Evaluation of Methodologies Used to Assess Neurobehavioural Effects of Lead in Children from 12 to 15 October 1992, to examine the epidemiological studies used to generate data at low blood lead levels which have never been analysed by experts outside the field, including psychologists, neurologists and pediatricians. This group would have as its base document relevant chapters of the draft iPCS Environmental Health Criteria; and, an International Scientific Consensus Conference on Lead from 5 to 9 October 1992, which examined broader non-occupationa! toxicological issues. This meeting was conducted with appropriate scientific rigour with expert participants identified by all relevant bodies including industry. It is iikely that the Lead in Drinking Water Guideline will be amended following this review of the lead in blood and air guidelines. 141 DUP040006677 Occupational Lead Exposures In 1980, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) recommended an occupational maximum blood lead level of 70 pg/dl for males and 40 pg/dl for females. However, those guidelines will soon be abolished in anticipation of the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission's proposed standards The National Occupational Health and Safety Commission expects to declare a National Work during 1S93. Lead smelting and the manufacture of lead products are major industries in Australia. ,, The draft Standard Code aims to progressively reduce lead exposures in the workplace, thereby minimizing the risk of adverse health effects. The draft National Standard seeks to accommodate occupational health, safety, economic and equal employment opportunity objectives. The latter is particularly for women, as they are sometimes excluded from certain jobs in the lead industry because of potential foetal damage, which could lead to early childhood developmental problems. ip brief, the draft Standard includes the following measures: prior to particular jobs commencing, employers are to determine whether the work entails significant risk of lead exposure (i.e. whether employee blood lead levels could be expected to rise above 30 pg/100 ml); employers to ensure that the level of lead in air likely to be inhaled by employees does not exceed 0.15 mg/m3 (calculated as a time weighted concentration Over an 8 hour day) or if not practicable, that respiratory protective equipment is provided; * employers to provide health surveillance programmes, including monitoring of blood lead levels of employees in lead-risk jobs; employees with high1 blood lead levels to be removed from the lead-risk job until the blood lead level is sufficiently low1; the following exposure control hierarchy is to be followed by employers in reducing the lead exposure of employees as far as practical, particularly when employee blood lead levels are consistently raised1: a) elimination; b) substitution; c) isolation; d) engineering hazard control measures; e) adoption of safe work practice; f) administrative control measures; g) personal protective equipment; employers to provide employees with information, induction and training on the nature of hazards and means of assessing and controlling exposure to workplace lead. 1 The definitions for "high", *lpw" and "cpnsisteotiy raised' blood lead levels have not yet been determined. 142 DUP040006678 CHAPTER 4 NATIONAL POSITIONS ON CURRENT RISKS FROM LEAD This chapter contains statements of national positions on current risks from lead. Essentially, these statements provide the rationale for any actions the country has taken to address effects associated with environmental orhuman health exposures to lead. The national statements are based on conclusions concerning the hazards of lead and data from human health or environmental monitoring carried out to determine levels of exposure. The national risk assessments and risk characterizations that have led countries to take action have a strong national character. Countries develop positions on the need for risk reduction activities only after they have analysed the hazard and the significance of certain exposures and have factored in local social, economic andpolitical considerations. : These positions are usually arrived at after considerable debate on the numerous factors involved, and thus are not expected to be consistent across OECD Member countries. This chapter also contains an internationally agreed assessment of the risks of lead from the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). The IPCS assessment is taken directly from Chapters 1 and 9 of the recent Task Group-approved update of the Environmental Health Criteria Document on Lead, which will be published in late 1993 or early 1994. 139 DUP040006679 GERMANY Muller, G. (Federal Environment Agency, Germany) (1992). Comments and data submitted to J, Buccini regarding lead in Germany. July. NEW ZEALAND ' Foronda, N. (Public and Personal Health, New Zealand) (1992). Facsimile to Dr, J. Buccini (Environment Canada), re: comments on the draft OECD Risk Reduction Strategy Document for Lead. December. Hinton, D., Coops, P.A, Malpress, W.A. and Janus, E,p. (1986), "trends in Blood Lead Levels^ in Christchurch (N2) and Environs 1978-85," Journal of Epidemioiogy and Community Healthi NORWAY Clench-Aas, J,, Thomassen, Y., Levy, F., Bartonova, A. and Skaug, K. (1990). The Effect of Reducing Air Lead from Vehicular Sources on the Blood Lead Concentrations in Two Norwegian Towns. Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU). Jorgensen, G. (State Pollution Control Authority, Norway) (1992). Comments and data submitted to J Buccini, Environment Canada, regarding lead in Norway. July, State Pollution Control Authority (1992). Materialstrermsanaiyse av bly (SFT-Rapport 92:07). ('Material flow analysis of lead. Summary and conclusions"). SWEDEN KEMI (National Chemicals inspectorate, Sweden) (1992). Comments and data from Dr. L, Gustafsson, KEMI, to J. Buccini, Environment Canada, regarding lead in Sweden. June. Nordic Council of Ministers (1992). "Atmospheric Heavy Metal Deposition in Northern Europe 1990." Word 1992:12. SWITZERLAND FOEFL (Federal Office of the Environment, Forest and Landscape) (1992). "VYeniger Biel im Benzin, weniger Biel im Slut," BUWAL-Bulletin, 3/92. UNITED KINGDOM UK Department of the Environment (UK DOE) (1992), Data from J. Atherton, UK DOE, to J, Buccini, Environment Canada, re: trends in the concentrations of lead in environmental media In the UK. April. 137 I DUP040006680 UNITED STATES Bolger, P.M., Carrington, C.D., Capar, S.G, and Adams, M.A. (1991). Reductions in dietary lead exposure in the United States. Division of Toxicological Review and Evaluation, Division of Contaminants Chemistry and Division ot Food Chemistry and Technology, US Food and Drug Administration. ENVIRON (1991). Assessment of Exposures to Lead, prepared by the Environ Corporation for the Metals Environmental Stewardship Alliance. Sept. ILZRO (International Lead and Zinc Research Organization, Inc.) (1991). Lead In Gasoline Environmental Issues *-1991. LIA (Lead industries Association, Inc.) (1991). Potential Human Exposures From Leadin Municipal Solid waste. Report to Congress (1988). The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the US: A Report to Congress. US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Toxic Disease Registry. July. US Bureau of Mines (USBM) (1992). Comments and data from W. Woodbury, USBM, to J, Keating, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, regarding trends in the production, use, recycling and disposal of lead in the US. January, May and August 1992. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (1990). Comprehensive and Workable Plan for the Abatement of Lead-Based Paint in Privately Owned Housing: Report to Congress. Washington, D.C. December. US ERA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1986). Airquality criteria for lead. Vols. !-IV. Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA 600/8-83/028. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1989). Review of the NationalAmbient Air Quality Standards for Lead: Exposure Analysis Methodology and Validation. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. June. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1990). Contract Report. Report to Congress on Special Waste from Mineral Processing, US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1991). National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1989, Office of Air Quality Planning end Standards. February. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection .Agency) (1992a), Data from Dr. R, Elias, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, on trends in the levels of lead in environmental media in the US. June. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1992b). Comments and data from Dr. P. Campanella, US EPA, to J. Bupcini, Environment Canada, regarding trends in the levels of lead in environmental media in the US. June, 138 DUP040006681 Alperstein, G., Reznick, R.B. and Duggin, G.C. (1991). "Lead: subtle forms and new modes of poisoning." Medical Journal of Australia, 155,16 September, p. 407* Boutron, C.F., Goriach, U., Candelone, J.-P., Bolshev, M.A. and Delmas, R.J. (1991). "Decrease in anthropogenic lead cadmium and zinc in Greenland snows since the late 1960s." Letters to Nature, 353:153-156, ri Chamberlain, A.C. and Wiffen, R.D. (1978). "Investigations into lead from motor vehicles." UKAEA Report AERE-R9198. HMSO, London. Dabeka, R.W. and McKenzie, A.D. (1987). "Lead, cadmium, and fluoride levels in market milk and infant formulas in Canada." Journal Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., 70: 754-7. Dabeka, R.W. and McKenzie, A.D. (1988). "Lead and cadmium levels in commercial infant foods and dietary intake by infants 0-1 years old." Food Additives and Contaminants, 5(3):333342. Hinds, H,W. (1982). Aerosol Technology, Wiley, Mew York. Maizlish, Neil, Rudolph, Linda, Sutton, Patrice, Jones, Jeffrey and Kizer, Kennet (1990). "Elevated blood lead in California adults, 1f87: results of a statewide surveillance program based on laboratory reports." American Journal of Public Health, 80(8):931-934. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food (MAFF), Steering Group on Food Surveillance (1989). Lead in food: progress report, Food Surveillance Paper, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food Paper No. 27. Prosi, F. (1989). "Factors controlling biological availability and toxic effects of lead in aquatic organisms." Sci. Tot, Environ., 79:157-169. Sherlock, J. (1987). "Lead in food and the diet." Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 9(2): 43-47. AUSTRALIA Australian Academy of Science (1981). Health and Environmental Lead in Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1992). Australia's Environment: Issues and Facts. AGPS, Canberra. Australia Lead Development Association (ALDA) (1992). information supplied by the ALDA to the Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency from various sources. 135 DUP040006682 Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency, Australia (CEPA) (1992). Note from P. Sainton, CEPA, to Dr. J. Buccini, Environment Canada, regarding lead in Australia. July. National Health and Medical Research Council (1990). Australian Market Basket Survey Report. Thompson, Q. (Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency -- CEPA) (1992). Facsimile to Dr. J. Buccini, Environment Canada, re: amendments to the draft OECD Risk Reduction Strategy Document for Lead. December. Thompson, G. (1992). Letter from Geoff Thompson of the Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency, Australia/'to Dr. J. Buccini, Environment Canada, concerning ammendments to the draft Risk Reduction Document for Lead. 10 December. AUSTRIA Kohlmann (Federal Ministry for Environment, Youth and Family, Austria) (1992). Comments and data submitted to J. Buccini, Environment Canada, regarding lead in Austria. June, BELGIUM Commission of the European Communities DG Xi/B3 (1992). Air Pollution information for Lead in Air in Belgium. U RBAN Environment Unit. Duooffre, G., Claeys, F. and Bruaux, P, (1989). Review: Lowering Time Trend of Blood Lead Levels in Belgium Since 1&78, Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Ministry of Health and Environment. Environmental Research, 5155*34 (1990). Received 1 July 1989. Motte, G. (Ministry of Health Environment, Belgium) (1992). Comments and data submitted to J. Buccini, Environment Canada, regarding lead in Belgium. July. CANADA Environment Canada (1989). Fact Sheet: Leaded Gasoline Phase-out. Conservation and Protection. Sept. Environment Canada (1990). Environmental Protection Series: National Urban Air Quality Trends 1978-1987 (including a 1992 update). Report EPS 7/UP/3. May. Health and Welfare Canada (1992), information provided by the Environmental Health Directorate. June. FINLAND Kiijunen, M. (Ministry of the Environment) (1992). Proposed additions to the OECD Draft Risk Reduction Strategy Document for Lead. November. 136 DUPQ40006683 ApPHNiiJlX. A U.S. BLOOD LEAD LITERATURE DATA 1935 * 1990 (!) Kehoe, R. A., Thamann, F. and CholaJc, ij.,' "Normal Absorption and Excretion of Lead," J[i2sni2LQi&jifflri!3ii^l^sLAss!ii> M. PP90-92,1935. (2) McMillen, J. H. and Scott, G. IL, "Spectragraphic Studies of Lead in Honm Blood," Proceedings of the Society for l fedisrims^^ 15* pp, 364-355, Dec. 1936. (3) Smith, F. L. 2nd, RathmeU, T. K. and Marcil, G. E., "The Early Diagnosis of Acute ^ ' American.Toainal _pf CTiriical Pathology. i,pp. 471-508,1938. (4) Kaplan, E. and McDonald, J. M-, "Blood Lead Determinations as a Health Department Laboratory Service," Amcrican._L.Qf Public Health. 22. pp. 481-486, May 1942. (5) Kehoe, R. A., Cholak, J. and Story, R. V., "A Spectrochemical Study of the Normal <G^r|nlri Trace Metals is : ihs^JmmLs Nutrition, 12. pp. 579-592, 1940. (6) Letonoff, T. V. and Reinhold, J. G,, 'Colorimetric Determination of Lead Chromate by Diphenyicarbazidc. Application of a New Methc^ tc Ar^ysis df Lead in Blood, Tissues, and Excreta," Ind. and Eng, qhem.. Analytical Edition. 12. pp. 280-284, May 15,1940, (7) Kehoe, R. A., Conference on Lead Poisoning, Seventh Annual Congress on Industrial Health, Boston, pp. 36-54, September 30-October 2,1946. (8) "Survey of Lead in the Atmosphere of Three Urban communities," U.S, Public Health Service Publication, No, 999-AP-12, Environmental Health Series, Air PoHutian, Jan. 1965. ' (9) Hofremer, D, H., Catcou, E, J.. . Keenan, R. G. and Ximaras, C.. "The Public Health Significance of Atmospheric Lead," Arch.'Env. JiCSilLlpp. 568-574, 1961, (10) Siegel, G, S,, "Lead Exposure Among Decorative and House Painters," Arch. Env. Health. & pp. 720-723,1963, (11) Butt, E. M,, Nusbanm, R. E., Gilmour, ' Trafee Meta|"%yffil5; itj; :IIpmaj. So t j p.;fhi4 l|aa&" :jfefafESfejffisid),I.:'tta.5&57.. life ' ' (12) Goldwater, L. J. and Hoover, W. A., "An ImenafealSttidy of Normal' Levds ofLead in . n pp. 0-63, July 1967. (13) MdLaag!i]m, M,, et_al.. "Longitudinal Sadies of id I^eveb in a ll.S. Popiiiladcn," Aisii.lBay.,H6allh. 22. pp- 305-311, Nov. 1973 ftijtoft,, "A fSte i^j^; !t#$ls. in Selected American Communities," Department of Environmental Health, Kettering Laboratory, Umvenity of Cinciimati, Final Report, 1972. I Stopps, G. J,, rated at American Pittsburgh, (16) Goldsmith, J. K., "Food Chain and : i<;!of |,4dibeihe|fl^ad," BpiactnioIogicsilStJjdies La,borstrnry, California State Department of Health, September 1974. (17) Osborne. R. G.. et. al.. "The Influence of Emdrwmeital Facto' on !Aaieniaia,J3d Neonaol Blood'UadUvds,''1 CamgllmLM!r^lia,iitt, ^ " ' " '-1 '?: (18) Joselow, M. M., et al.. "Environmental Contrasts: Blood Lead Levels of Children in 22. MO. l.pp. 10-12,1974. (19) Hecker, L. E., et al.. "Heavy Metals in jaesi#Populations," Pp. 181-18:5, October "V :-" (20) Johnson, D.' E., et al.. "Levels of Palladiufflu .and Lead in Populations of Ess^Es^ksnsssans&. ^^^7-3, 1975, (21) Johnson, D. etaL- Trace Metals in Occupationally and Non-Gcctgiadonally Exposed Enz*JiaiilLEeisimk^ Ifl, pp. 151-158, April 1975. 133 DUP04&006B84 (22) Baker, E. L.. ct al.. "A Nationwide Survey of Heavy Metal Absorption in CItildren siivffii 'Mear.iprirnaiy';:Ca,,E|5 and Zn AmnsarjTMgliLF4:MsmM^l^No.4^ pp. 261-273,1977. (23) Wei Liang, et al.. "Study on Hazards of Leaded Gasoline,'' Clinical Pediatrics, m. 791- . 754, September 1977. 1(34)1 .Perkins, K. ., et aL. "Elevated Blood |iWanti: life-. Role of Newsprint Logs," Pediatrics. 57. No. 3, pp. 426-427, March 1976. T. I-. et al.. "Cadmium, Lead and !:!titeMl|feinl':fifeBnM Children," to 2 CD. PP-75-87,1976. son on Study of Blood Lead nond, P. Bl, et al.. "Relationship pf J Indices of Lead Exposure to the Health ........ . ISw^SsiElrtM Llai4 .....^ ;"iP4jt! !|attdt|g^ii :P, I,, SLSi.r "Lead, Exposure in Stained Glass Workers," American Journal of TririnsTrisi Medicine. 1. no. 177-180, I960. (29) Angell, N. F., et al.. "The Relationship of Blood Lead Levels to Obstetric Outcome," il2 (i). PP- 40-46,1982. GO) Rabinowitz, M. B., Needleman, H. L. (If82) "Temporal trends in the lead concentrations of umbilical cord blood," Science (Washington, DQ, 21&, PP-1429-1431. (31) CDC [Centers for Disease Control] (1983), Kellogg Idaho Child Lead Study, Samrrier 1983. Panhandle District Health Department; Idaho Dept, of Health and Welfare; U.S. EPA. July 1986. (32) CDC [Centers for Disease Control] East Helena, Montana Child Lead Study, Summer 1983. Lewis and Clark county Health Dept., Montana Dept, of Health and Environ. ScL, U.S. Dept: of Health and Human Services, U.S. EPA. July 1986. (33) Phillips, P. E., Voraberg, D. L. (1986) ?p|M$atic. pood fell levels, in BepuWseam, :^fB^9,Hri4984',i Etesgattod 'to the Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health, at .the Environmental Health, Columbia, MO, June 5, 1n9.8;6. $3|E:. 1........... <3lfe 'Ifinliifi.tCL 'Eappriatt;ii. 14. r . j .. 4Lpp. 287-291. iJf^ University of Cincinnati." ;Hsdlth, ^SDli^Diettftoh:..,. Kraff, K. M., Boms^hein, R. L.. Hammond, P. B,, Berger, O., $$$;LBs|l4.;*j!#'"Lot^l fetal lead exposure effect on neurobehavioral development in early infancy," Pediatries. SL pp*' 721-730. 134 DUP04000668S .MEW ZEALAND The following information to reduce risks to health and the environment from exposure to lead was obtained from Dr. N. Foronda (Public and Personal Health -- New Zealand, 1992). The current mean blood level in New Zealand is 7 pg/dl. Lead from paint and food and drink containers are the major sources of the New Zealand mean blood level. Petrol lead accounts for 5 oer cent. Studio- conducted between 1974 and "PS* show that blood lead levels dropped by 40 pei cent for adult males and 35 per cent W adult females and children. This reduction was attributed to the removal of lFd from feed and drink certain''-rs. In 1986, the lead content of petrol was reduced from G.P,^ c/I to o 45 n/l b.it nr shr.ifioart reduction in lead blood level was observed. Lead-based Paint The Toxic Substances Regulations 1983 requires that the maximum permissible amount of lead in paint is 5000 mg/kg. This level will be reduced to 2500 mg/kg in the proposed fourth amendment of the regulations which are anticipated to be promulgated in June 1993. The current regulations also specify that no person shall manufacture, import, supply, sell, or use any paint, distemper, powder coating, pigment, or anti-fouling composition that contains basic lead carbonate which is also known as white lead. 'Labelling The container of any paint, distemper, or powder coating that contains in its dry weight more than 5000 mg/kg must be labelled as prescribed under the Toxic Substances Regulations 1983. Lead In Petrol An amendment to the Ministry of Energy (Petroleum Products Specifications) Regulations 1988 has been made which reduced the maximum permissible level of lead contamination in New Zealand unleaded petrol from 0.05 g/l to 0.013 g/l. in 1986, the maximum permissible level of lead in leaded gasoline was 0.84 g/l. This level was reduced significantly to 0.46 g/l. The target date for elimination of lead in petrol has been set as January 1996. Lead In Drinking Water The "Prinking Water Standards for New Zealand" have been prepared from the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 1984 and provides a guideline value of 0.05 mg/I. The New Zealand standard is proposed to be reviewed in 1993 to align with the new WHO Guidelines. The draft proposal for the WHO Guidelines has been released and they will be finalized in June 1993. 202 DUP040006686 3tri- h r :: . Industries agreed to eliminate the use of lead red oxide, and lead basic carbonate from pigments, lacquer, enamel, paint and varnish, on toys, pencils, color pencils and other school articles, printing inks, cosmetics, furniture, and paints for interiors, in three months. A Technical Health Norm has been elaborated to regulate the use of lead oxides and carbonates. Three NOMs had been published in 1992 describing methods to determine lead in paints and pigments, as well as on dry surface paints. A month after the signature of the Agreement, labels warning about the presence of lead on paints and health effects from inhalation or ingestion were introduced on sk the products in the market or in stocks. In June 1992, a Technical Health Norm concerning labeling of paint products containing lead was published. Lead glazed pottery: Representatives of artisans, together with government officials, modified the maximum solubility levels on glazed pottery kiln-fired at 990C as follows: flat items: 7.0mg/i small hollow items: 5,0mg/l big hollow items: 2.5 mg/) decorative items: 2.5 mg/I Those requirements are considered in a ROM published on December 1991. An additional NOM concerning the method to determine lead solubility was published at the same time. In 1988, a NOM was published to establish lead solubility standards on lead based glass decoration. A research group was established to study technological alternatives to substitute the use of lead on glazed pottery or to decrease lead solubility without changing the typical characteristics of regional glazed pottery. This programme was given 1000 million Mexican pesos in support from the National Solidarity Programme. More funding will be provided to change fuels to fire the glazed pottery. Education The Health Secretariat has established an education programme to transmit messages to show alternatives to reduce lead exposure. Occupational Standards The maximum permissible level in air in the work place is 150 pg/rrf, as established by No, 10 instructive of the Hygiene arid Occupational Health Regulation. The reduction of this standard to 50 jo.g/m3 is being considered. 201 UP040006687 SWEPEN Sweden has undertaken an aggressive approach to controlling lead exposure. Sweden advocates an ambitious long term objective of the cessation of lead use. Many of the proposals put forth by Sweden to control lead exposure are more rigid than other OECD countries. In the near term, Sweden's active stance is reflected in the range of regulatory policies and measures adopted. Sweden has implemented risk reducing strategies aimed at a variety of environmental media, environmental point sources, and industrial and consumer products. Lead-based Paint In Sweden, white lead compounds are not used in paints; however, some lead is used in paint as pigments, drying agents, and rust-proofing agents. Most lead paint is used on exterior structures and equipment. Through a voluntary agreement with the Sweden National Chemicals Inspectorate, Swedish paint producers agreed to eliminate the use of lead chromate pigments in! paint by July of 1990 (Andersson, 1990). there is work orngoing aiming at further voluntary agreements to limit the use of lead In paint. Lead In Gasoline in Sweden, limits on the lead content in gasoline are 0,15 g/i for leaded gasoline and 0.013 g/l for unleaded gasoline. In addition to these limits, Sweden requires all new automobiles to have catalytic converters and operate on unleaded gasoline {Andersson, 1990). These limits and requirements were effective in 1989, and the Swedish government anticipates a 360 tonne reduction in lead emissions from motor vehicles from 1988 to 1995 (NCI, 1990). In addition, in 1991, the tax on leaded gasoline was raised in an effort to degrease its use (Wahisironi, 1992). There is a proposal to further limit lead emissions from motor vehicles by revising standards on gasoline and motor vehicles imported, produced, and sold in Sweden (NCI, 1990). In 1993, the tax difference between leaded and unleaded gasoline will be raised once again. Recently the Swedish Environment Protection Agency in a report to the Government has proposed a ban to manufacture or import leaded gasoline from July 1,1994. The proposal has not been considered by the Government yet Lead In Drinking Water Since there are no lead pipes in Sweden, lead in drinking water is considered to be a minor problem. Nevertheless, beginning in i960, the National Food Administration set definitions for suitable and unsuitable waters. Waters with lead concentrations less than 0.01 mg/I are deemed suitable; waters with lead concentrations from 0.01 mg/I to less than 0.05 mg/I are deemed suitable with remark; and waters with lead concentrations greater than or equal to 0.05 mg/I are deemed unsuitable. In 1989, a special ordinance was Issued that prescribed that installations in contact with drinking water must be made of materials that leach less than 0,05 mg/f of lead (Andersson, 1990). 204 DUP040006633 Lead in Food The Food Regulations 1984 establishes maximum permissible proportions for a range of food products. These levels range from 0.2 to 10 parts per million (First Table to Regulation 257). Lead in Ambient Air New Zealand has proposed a national ambient air quality guideline of TO pg/rn3 for an average time of three-month moving average. Lead in Sewage Sludge In 1992, recommended limits for lead in sewage sludge intended for application to arable land were established. The maximunri acceptable' concentration in dry sewage sludge i: 600 mg/kg, the limit value allowable in soil js 300 mg/kg, and the maximum cumulative loading is 125 kg/ha. Lead In Products The Toxic Substances Regulations 1983 prohibit the manufacture, importation, packing or seiiing of any graphic material that contains more than 100 mg/kg of lead, A graphic materia! is defined as any material used tor writing, drawing, marking or painting. The maximum permissible amount of lead is 5000 mg/kg in coating materials as required in the New Zeaiand Specification for the Safety of Toys, This level will be reduced to 2500 mg/kg in the Fourth Amendment of the Toxic Substances Regulations 1983. Accessible plastics materia! on a toy is restricted to a maximum permissible amount of 250 mg/kg. for air. Occupational Standards i The Workplace Exposure Standards for New Zealand has adopted a value of 0.15 mg/m3 203 DUP040006689 Recycling In Sweden, the Environmental Protection Agency has levied a tax on all batteries to be paid for by producers and importers. The tax is used to support the companies that receive, store and transport batteries for final disposal. So successful is this programme that in its first 3 years more batteries were returned than had been sold during the same period; presumably, many consumers returned discarded batteries they had previously stared (Andersson, 1990). Further efforts to control lead exposure from batteries (i.e. occupational, disposal, and manufacture) have been proposed. These include increased support for the recycling initiative described above (i.e. returnable deposits for new batteries) as well as, increased support for lead battery design improvements and/or the development of potential lead-free substitutes (NCI, 1990)., Occupational Standards In Sweden, the maximum allowable air lead concentration in the workplace is 0,10 mg/m3 (total) and 0.05 mg/m3 (respirable) expressed as a time weighted average over eight hours. The maximum blood lead values for both male and female are 50 jxg/dl in three consecutive checks and 60 jig/dl in one check (ILZSG, 1989a). New regulations will come into force on January 1, 1994. The medical removal blood lead concentration in the workplace will be 1) for men and for women over 50 years: 40 pg/dl for 3 consecutive checks and 50 pg/di for any one check, end, 2) for women under 50 years: 25 pg/dl for 3 consecutive checks and 30 pg/dl for any one check. 206 DUP040006690 Lead In Food Swedish food tolerance levels have recently been lowered to G.3-0.5 mg/kg for most canned food, and to between 0.02-0.5 mg/kg for various foodstuffs (higher values for spices etc.}. Sweden wishes to eliminate imported lead soldered cans (virtually all cans manufactured in Sweden are welded) (Wahistrom, 1992). Sweden also wishes to subject canned foods to the same standards as fresh foods (Andersson, 1990). Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls In Sweden, air and water emission standards are set on a case by case basis during tfo# facility licensing process. For air point sources, the Environmental Protection Act states that lead gases are expected to be collected and controlled by fabric filters (ILZSG, 1989a). For smelters and other combustors, licenses given to facilities are contingent on facilities using the best available technology (BAT), limiting disturbances and/or interferences, and meeting industry specific flue dust standards. For example, primary smelters after 1991 must limit total annual air emissions to 30 tonnes. In addition, they must meet a maximum allowable flue dust concentration (of the process gas after filter) of 20 mg/m3 dry gas (Andersson, 1990). A similar regulatory structure is used to control water point sources. Water that is discharged and contains heavy metals (for example, lead) are subject to BAT requirements and review (ILZSG, 1989a). For example, primary smelters after 1991 must limit total annual water emissions to 2 tonnes. In addition, they must meet a maximum aliowabie concentration in effluent water of 0.1 mg/1 (Andersson, 1990). Lead in Products Sweden has worked to actively reduce risks to health and the environment from lead in products. As part of this effort, Sweden has implemented product quality standards, recycling policies, and information campaigns. Ceramic standards were enacted by industry. Ceramic wares intended for handling food or beverages are prohibited from sale if more than 3 mg/1 lead Is leached out during a standardized acetic acid leaching test (Andersson, 1990). Sweden also proposes to eliminate the use of underground sheathing cables and lead plastic additives (NCI, 1990). The goal is to eliminate use of lead-sheathed underground cables by 1995. There is currently a voluntary effort to not use underground lead-sheathed cables after 1994 (Wahistrom, 1992). Another future area of interest/control is crystal. In this area, Sweden is assisting with the development of semi lead-free crystal and eventually whole lead-free crystal (NCI, 1990). Industry voluntarily agreed not to use lead in the manufacturing of semi-crystal after 1991 and today no glassworks use lead for semi-crystal (Wahistrom, 1992), Miscellaneous uses are presently being investigated, to form a basis for discussions with Industry about voluntary measures. A total of around 1000 tonnes of lead shot is used in Sweden annually. Since 1991, a voluntary reduction, stimulated by information and educational campaigns, is being attempted. The goal is to shift to lead-free alternatives by the beginning of the 21st century. Unless significant results can be for seen, bans may be considered in the near future. 205 DUP040006691 Occupational Standards The maximum allowable air lead concentration in the workplace is 0.1 mg Pb/m3 (timeweighted average over eight hours) for lead and lead compounds (except alkyl compounds), and 0.075 mg Pb/m3 for tetramethyl and tetraethyl lead. The maximum allowable blood lead concentration is 30 pg/dl for women and 70 pg/di for men. y' 208 I DUP040006692 SWITZERLAND TJteSd^apdTajnt The use of lead in different colours and writing materials is regulated in the Order concerning prohibited toxic substances and in the Ordinance on food (Lebensmittelverordnung). The regulations have been implemented in order to protect the general population from direct lead intake. They can be summarized as follows: The use of lead and its compounds is prohibited in water paints and non-washable^ distempers used for interior paintwork. Lead is prohibited as well in dyes for clothing. Coatings and leads of writing and painting materials for household and school are not allowed to release more than 250 mg Pb/kg coating when incubated for one hour into 0.07 mol/i HOI at 21 C; the maximum concentration of lead in refills and liquid inks is 250 mg/kg dry residue. Water colours for household and school may not release more than 100 mg PB/kg when incubated for one hour into 0.07 mol/l HCI at 21 C. Lead In Gasoline, aircraft petrol and heating fuel The lead content in gasoline is limited to 0.15 g/i (leaded), to 0,013 g/l (unleaded) and to 0.56 g/l in aircraft petrol. In 1992 the market share of unleaded gasoline has reached about 65 per cent. The lead content of heating fuel "Extra leicht" is limited to 1 mg/kg whereas the fuel qualities "MitteJ" and "Schwer" may not contain more than 5 mg/kg. Lead in Drinking Water The permissible lead concentration in drinking water is 0,05 mg/I. The use of lead containing pipes and tubes is prohibited, Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls Effluents discharged into surface waters or public sewers must have a lead concentration of less than 0.5 mg/1, The quality criteria for surface water flows and impounded river water is set at0,05mg/i. In Switzerland the general emission limit for combusters with a mass flow greater than 25 g/hr is set at 5 mg/m3. For municipal waste incinerators the'sum of lead and zinc including its compounds emitted into the atmosphere must not exceed 1 mg/m3. The maximum tolerable lead concentration in air (suspended dust) is limited at 1 gg/m3 per day. In order to guarantee long-term soil fertility, Switzerland has implemented guide levels for soil pollutants. According to the ordinance relating to pollutants in soil the total lead content is limited to 50 mg/kg, soluble lead to 1 mg/kg. The use of sewage sludge and compost for agricultural purposes is prohibited if its lead content exceeds 500 mg/kg or 120 mg/kg, respectively. 207 DUP040006S93 to phase out the use of lead additives in gasoline entirely (Whitehead, 1989), Since 1973, the allowable lead content in gasoline has been steadily reduced within the United Kingdom. Most recently, in 1986, the maximum allowable concentration of lead in gasoline was set at 0.15 g/L Unleaded gasoline was first widely introduced in 1986 with a maximum allowable lead concentration of 0.013 g/l (85/210/EEC). Beginning in 1988, the Road Vehicle and Type Approval Regulations specified that all new vehicles must be capable of running on unleaded gasoline in the 1990^ (Rea, 1991), Observing the period from 1986 to 1987, it was estimated that the amount of lead dischsrg :o l.</ rr-cto*- -/oh-cies in the U" dropped by 60 per cent after the 1986 reduction. Similarly, averace air^rn--' i<=ad conr-entraucne at twenty-one of the UK monitoring sites fell by nearly 50 per cunt over this same time period (Reed, 1987). Lead in Drinking Water in 1973, regional authorities within the United Kingdom were made responsible for water supply, treatment, and management. As part of this responsibility, authorities were asked to maintain "wholesome" drinking water quality. A survey in 1983, however, revealed that approximately 10 per cent of the water supplies required reduction in the plumbsoivency of the water (Whitehead, 1989). In response to this concern, the 1989 Water Supply Regulations set the maximum concentration of lead in drinking water at 50 jxg/l (the same level proscribed by the EC in 80/778/EEC). These regulations also require water companies to install further treatment where there is risk of exceeding the standard at the customer's tap. Discretionary grants are also made available to customers who require treatment at or near their kitchen tap (Rea, 1991). Studies concerning lead in drinking water have been conducted in Jwp areas of Scotland. In Glasgow, several areas with high plumbsoivency iq their water supplies Were identified. To assess the potential impact of this exposure source, a sample consisting of 131 infants and their mothers were analyzed. Mean blood levels were 18 pg/dl for mothers; 20.8 pg/dl for bottle-fed infants; and 9.7 jig/dl for breast-fed infants. The study revealed a curvilinear relationship between blood lead and lead intake, suggesting that blood lead was strongly affected by low lead intakes. These results raised concerns about drinking water as a contributor to lead exposure particularly for infants (Reed, 1987). To demonstrate the value of abatement efforts, a study was also conducted in Ayr. The sample included 74 women. After replacing lead service lines/pipes, the median blood lead level of the sample dropped from 21 pg/dl to 13 pg/dl (Reed, 1987). The UK government has recently proposed regulations to prohibit the use of certain lead solders and the supply of integral solder ring copper fittings containing lead solder in domestic water supply installation, and to impose restrictions on the labelling and display of solders. In the regulations, lead solder is defined as that which contains more than 0.1 per cent lead (Atherton, 1992). Lead in Food The estimated mean weekly intake of lead through the dietary pathway (excluding drinking water) in the UK is 0.42 mg per person (MAFF, 1989), The United Kingdom has established quality and labeling standards for a range of consumer products. Since 1979, the UK government has enforced a general limit for lead in food of 1.0 mg/kg, with exceptions for certain specified foods (i.e. 0.2 mg/kg baby food, 2.0 mg/kg for liver). Since lead solder has been phased out from use in cans manufactured in the UK (and in a number of other countries), the genera! limit of 210 DUP040008694 u n it e d KIMGDOM- Over the period from 1973 to 1974, the United Kingdom conducted its first comprehensive study of lead. This study was unique in the sense that no such study had been conducted for almost any other environmental pollutant. The goal established at that time by the Department of Environment's Centra! Unit on Environmental Pollution was to implement lead pollution control policies that would ensure that lead exposure in the United Kingdom would not increase. Areas and circumstances of high exposure to lead were to be identified and remedied (Whitehead, 1989). Much of the United Kingdom's concern stemmed from high-leveis of exposure that were sites, families and workers were identified with elevated blood lead levels and air and dust samples revealed high lead concentrations (Reed, 1987). These sites would prove to have much influence on the UK's lead control strategy which, like many other countries, has been focussed on identifying anci remedying hot spots. To date, the United Kingdom has shown initiative in establishing lead risk reduction strategies that influence environmental media and sources, consumer products, and environmental heailh. It is important to note that many of the UK's efforts were done in accordance to European Community guidelines, \titfen problems were not addressed by the EC, however, the United Kingdom has relied on ja1 variety of strategies including legal quality standards, voluntary agreements action programmes, and subsidized public and private remedial actions (Whitehead, 1989). Biocd Lead Action Levels United Kingdom government advice published in 1982 recommended taking steps to reduce exposure if blood lead ieveis exceed 25 pg/d! (Rea, 1991), Lead-based Paint There have been substantial reductions in the use of white and red lead pigments in paints within the United Kingdom. Some uses remain, however, including those for corrosion control on steel work and for protection of outdoor work. In addition, lead chromates continue to be used in paint for road markings (Rea, 1991). A voluntary agreement between the government and the Paint Makers Association (who account for over 90 per cent of the UK's production of solvent thinned alkyd paint) was established to eliminate the use of lead additives in decorative paints and varnishes by 1987 (Whitehead, 1989). The United Kingdom has implemented legislation concerning lead paint that prevents the use of lead carbonates and lead sulphates in paint. Under these rules, lead carbonates and sulfates may only be used in paint for certain historic buildings and art preservation (Atherton, 1992). Lead in Gasoline in 1983, the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution estimated that adults in the United Kingdom derived up to 20 per cent of their body lead burden from gasoline lead. At this time, the United Kingdom concurred with certain other European countries (for example, Germany) 209 DUP040006695 wastes are required to complete a consignment note for disposal authorities (Reed, 1991). Since 1986, the United Kingdom has; also required operators that transport lead-containing wastes to meet specific transport requirements (i,e. vehicle design, driver training) (iLZSG, 1989b). Lead in Products As of 1988, ceramic wares have also been subject to regulations, industry was given five years to meet maximum lead concentrations of 0.8 mg/drif for flatware; 4.0 mg/! for small hollowware (volume less than 3 litres); and 1.5 mg/! for large hollowware (volume greater than 3 litres). Follow-up surveys conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries have shown close to 100 per cent compliance with these limits in the UK (Rea, 1991). in addition to food and ceramic wares, the United Kingdom also restricts the use of leadbased paint in consumer products. Lead in dry paint film on toys is limited to 0.25 per cent by weight. The soluble lead content of a paint coating applied to a pencil, pen, or brush is limited to 0.025 per cent by weight (Rea, 1991). Recycling There are currently no regulations governing the disposal of lead batteries within the United Kingdom. Despite this fact, recycling rates are approximately 100 per cent for batteries installed in buildings and close to 90 per cent for those installed in automobiles. There is much discussion of passing regulation that would control the disposal of lead batteries in coordination with the European Community proposals on this subject (Rea, 1991). The transport of lead batteries is regulated as individuals transporting batteries that contain more than 1 litre of electrolyte must abide by restrictive transport conditions (i.e. manifest and vehicle requirements) (ILZSG, 1939b). Educatlon/Labelling In the United Kingdom, a joint informational campaign between the Lead Development Association and angling groups has resulted in a phase-out of lead weights in fishing. The United Kingdom also specifies that all paints and varnishes containing more than 0.15 per cent lead by weight must be labelled accordingly (Rea, 1991), Occupational Standards in January of 1981, the maximum allowable concentration of lead in the workplace in the United Kingdom was set at 0.15 mg/m3 (expressed as a time weighted average over 8 hours). The maximum allowable blood lead concentrations were also set at this time at 80 p.g/dl for men and 40 jxg/dl for women (ILZSG, 1989a). In 1986 the blood lead limit for men was reduced to 70 pg/dl. 212 DUP040008696 1.0 mg/kg also applies to food stuffs supplied in these containers. A survey of cans from 1983 to 1S87 revealed marked reductions in lead levels with only one-can of the 1987 sample not passing the limits (MAFF, 1987). The United Kingdom has also considered subjecting imported food products to the same lead in food products limits (Reed, 1987). Lead in Soils An analysis of metals in urban dust and soils in the UK conducted over several years, beginning in 1981, showed elevated urban dust and soil concentrations relative to agricultural soil concentrations (Emerson et a!., 1992). There are currently no UK standards for lead levels in soils. However, the Department of the Environment promotes guidance drawn up by the' Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land for the assessment of polluted soils (ICRCL, 1987). This guidance incorporates the concept of "trigger concentrations which depend on the intended use of the contaminated site. The trigger concentration for lead is set at 500 mg/kg (air .dried soil) for land used as domestic gardens and allotments, and 2000 mg/kg for parks and playing fields. When levels at a site are known to exceed these concentrations,, it is repbmmended that further investigation be conducted to ascertain the risks to human health associated with the use of the land, and recourse to remedial action is dependent on the outcome of such'a study. United Kingdom Regulations implementing EC Directive 86/278/EEC were designed to protect soils when sewage sludge is used in agriculture. A maximum permissible concentration for lead in soils of 300 mg/kg dry solids after the application of sewage sludge has been established along with an average annual rate of addition of lead amounting to 15 kg/hectare calculated over a ten year period. These limits are accompanied by more detailed requirements for sludge producers and landowners, aimed at protecting the wider environment and, in particular, grazing animals. Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls The United Kingdom has followed the guidelines set forth by the European Community for controlling ambient air emissions. The limit for lead is 2.0 pg/m3 expressed as a mean annual concentration (ILZSG, 1989a). The United Kingdom regulates air point sources such as smelter and other lead works. Best practicable means (BPM) are used to treat and control air emissions. BPM technologies are agreed upon through negotiations between the government and industry. Using these technologies, industrial sources must meet an allowable lead concentration of 0.002 g/m3 with the exception of some sources that must meet an allowable lead concentration of 0.01 g/m3. Total particulate emissions cannot exceed 0.1 g/m3 (Rea, 1991). Some water point sources, such as industrial effluents, are also regulated in the United Kingdom. Permissible lead concentrations vary with the plant location and receiving water. Overall, the typical range of permissible lead concentrations is 1.0 through 5.0 mg/l (ILZSG, 1989a). The content of lead in the effluent should correspond to the Environmental Quality Standard for the receiving waters established by the Department of the Environment (DOE, 1989). These standards vary between freshwater and salt water and with total hardness (mg/l CaC03) and whether the water is abstracted to potable supply. Under the 1974 Control of Pollution Act, the United Kingdom placed some restrictions on fie production disposal, and import of special waste. Wastes consisting of o.r containing lead are included in the special waste category, individuals wishing to produce, dispose, or import such * 211 DUP040006697 abatement of the 23 million occupied pre-1950 housing units containing lead paint would be $34 billion, if abatements were conducted over a 20-year period. While these costs are high, the estimated benefits of such a programme are also substantial: CDC also estimated that the present value monetized health benefits of the 20-year abatement programme would be $62 billion over the lifetime of the occupants; the present value of net benefits (benefits minus costs) was estimated to be $28 billion (CDC, 1991b). To help address the problems of lead-based paint abatement, HUD has established an Of'icr. ' / L^ed-bcccci Faint Abatement and ^toning Prevention. Them is ? kc cn Interagency Lead b:*=r 'i Paint Tael' Force that includes FPA and HI IT tec-chairs,, th* Department of Health and Human Services, Dpoartnent of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Adrr.infctrahon iOc'H^i. he Flagons! inc-lti'to for Occupational Safety ard Health T'lOSH), lhc Department .of Cnmmcrcf's National institute lor Standards and Technology ffHST), the Nations! institute Hr Sni'iror "icntrl Health Services FNlEiJS>, the Ooncurrmr Product Safety Commission 'CPSC), Anonny iv To:'ic Subst* near Dieppe Reoictr' fATSQR;. Jhe Deportmen* cf State. the Council for .Fir vi on mental Quality (CEO), the Depanmeot of Defence (DOC), h-anoher. of the military, the Rf"nlufnn Trust Corporation (FiTr-K ihe Dpparlmcr.t of '''Pteran Affnr mo ihe Department of Energy. Major Te^k Force aedvifef include inteoratinn various egc-noy load rfrategie** hfo a unified apprc e"h to address chi!dt-TM:1 ^ad poison'ng ard lead paint abatomcnh an info'TP'icn oleorinnhnuse on lead paint and nker lead exnpsures; and investigating improved analytical technology. ERA is particularly active in evaluating abatement technologies and measurement technologies, establishing programmes to assure a trained skilled work force is available, and in furthering .technology transfer and outreach. A national public education campaign is expected to be launched in 1993 by the President's Commission on Environmental Quality, a public/private partnership group. OSHA is required to develop an interim final standard for lead in construction in 1993. This regulation is being developed in part to address exposure to lead-based paint In addition to Federal activity, several individual US states have also instituted aggressive programmes to reduce exposures to lead in residential buildings. States have also proposed restrictions on. paint removal activities to limit exposures during abatement. For example, Texas is proposing a ban on sandblasting painted structures when paint contains more than 1 per cent lead and the structure is located near a residential or public area. Minnesota has developed a set of pollution control recommendations for the removal of paint that contains more than 1 per cent lead (EPA, 1991c). in October 1992, the Residential Lead-based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992 was enacted. This law provides the framework for a national approach to reduce hazards from leadbased paint exposure, primarily from housing. The law requires HUD to provide grants to States to reduce hazards in non-Federally-owned or -assisted housing, to evaluate and reduce lead hazards in Federally-owned or -assisted housing, and to issue guidelines for performing risk assessments, inspection, in-place management and abatement of lead hazards. EPA is mandated to promulgate regulations ensuring that those engaged in abatement activities are trained and that training programmes are certified, to establish standards for abatement activities, to promulgate model State programmes from compliance with training and accreditation regulation, to establish a laboratory accreditation programme, to establish a clearinghouse for dissemination of information, to promulgate regulations for the disclosure of lead hazards at property transfer, to conducts, study on the hazards of renovation and remodeling activities, and to develop regulations to identify lead hazards in painty dust, and soil. 214 DUP040006698 UNITED STATES Throughout the past 25 years, the United States has been quite active in sponsoring regulatory measures to reduce potential human exposures to lead, many of which have been successful. The US has restricted or banned the use of many products containing lead where risks from these products are high and where substitutes for lead or lead-based products are available. For products where risks to human health and/or the environment are lower, or for which technically and economically adequate substitutes are not available, lead control strategies have focused oh recycling, emissions controls on the mining and processing of lead, and the ultimate disposal of lead-containing products. Finally, in certain important areas where exposure is based" on pkst uses of lead, education and abatement programmes have been , used. The US continues to.puj^u^'.JK^oiml^lead. risk reduction measures, focusing on those sources with greatest exposure arid risk potential. Blood Lead Action Levels - The definition of a blood lead level that defines a level of concern for lead in children continues to be an important issue in the United States. The childhood blood lead concentration of concern in the US has been steadily lowered by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) from 40 pg/dl, in 1970, to the current action level of 10 pg/dl established in 1991. Earlier, the EPA had lowered the level ql concern to 10pi.g/di ("10-15 and possibly lower") in 1986. The Agency for Toxic Substance Disease Registry (ATSDR) identified the same level of concern in the 1988 Report to Congress on childhood lead poisoning. The CDC has issued recommendations for actions at different blood lead levels in children (CDC, 1991a). For a community with a significant number of children having blood lead levels between 10-14 ng/dl, initiation of community-wide lead poisoning prevention activities is recommended. For individual children with blood lead .levels between 15-19 ug/d!, CDC recommends nutritional and educational interventions. Blood lead levels of 20 fig/dl and higher should trigger investigations of the affected individual's environment and medical evaluations. Lead screening for children has recently increased significantly. The medicai removal blood lead concentration in the workplace, which became effective in 1983, is 50 pig/dl for three consecutive checks and 60 pg/dl for any one check. Blood level monitoring is triggered by an air lead concentration above 30 ng/m3. A worker is permitted to return to work when his blood lead level falls below 40 pg/dl. Lead-based Paint One of the highest-risk sources of lead for children in the US is lead-based paint. In 1977, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission set a standard for lead in residentialpaint of 0.06 per cent (16 CFR 1303). Although this restriction effectively banned lead in residential paint in the US, an estimated three million tons of lead in paint still remains in US dwellings (ATSDR, 1988). The US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has proposed an extensive programme to reduce exposure from deteriorating lead-based paint, including research, technical assistance, funding for abatement in public housing and assistance to local governments (HUD, 1990). As part of their comprehensive plan, HUD estimated that if 500 000 high-priority homes were tested every year, the total cost of testing these homes and performing abatefnent where necessary would be $1.9 to $2.4 billion. In a separate analysis, the US Department of Health and Human Services' Centers for Disease Control (1991b) estimated that total present cost of 213 DUP040006699 performance standard would be replaced with lead content standard. Meanwhile, EPA is continuing discussions with industry (through the National Sanitation Foundation International) on the development of lead leaching standards for certification of plumbing fittings. Proposed legislation in the US Congress also addresses lead in drinking water. Proposals include provisions for amending drinking water regulations with regard to sampling and compliance activities, increasing restrictions on lead solder, and setting performance standards for lead in plumbing fixtures. Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls The Department of Housing and Urban Development has set interim guidelines for abatement of lead-based paint in public housing. These guidelines recommend abatement' at 1 jig/cm2 paint of 0.5 per cent lead by weight and clearance levels for lead in household dust of 200 pg/if for floors, 500 jig/ft2 for window sills and 800 jig/ft2 for window wells (HUD, 1990). No guidelines currently exist for residential soils, but the EPA has adopted an interim guidance citing levels to be attained once remediation at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites is determined to be necessary. The interim guidance recommends that clean-up should attain soil concentrations of between 500 and 1000 mg/kg. Generally, these levels are believed to be protective of children in the residential setting but are not intended to protect for ecological effects. EPA is conducting studies in several large cities and will consider these studies in developing final guidance. Soils removed during remedial activities at waste sites must pass a leaching test or be subject to disposal as hazardous waste. Strategies aimed at reducing ongoing exposures to lead include emissions standards for sources of lead in air and water. The United States ambient air quality standard for lead is currently 1.5 pg/m3 (quarterly average), but a more stringent standard is now being considered. Surface water quality criteria exist for both freshwater and saltwater, in the United States, freshwater lead standards vary by water hardness. The most stringent standard allows a maximum four day average of 1.3 pig/! with a one hour maximum average of 34 pg/1. Saltwater criteria for the US limit lead concentrations to an average of 5.6 pg/1. This limit cannot be exceeded more than once over a three-year period. Also, the EPA has proposed regulations for the use and disposal of sewage sludge containing lead. These proposed rules allow a maximum concentration of lead in sludge of 300 mg/kg and cumulative pollutant loading in the soil of not more than of 300 kg/ha. The Agency is reviewing comments on this proposal and is developing a final regulation under Section 405D of the Clean Water Act to be published in December, 1992. FDA has established acceptable lead levels for bottled water and table wine. There is a voluntary industry standard tor calcium supplements (FDA, 1992a). Other standards for food and cosmetic additives range from 10 to 70 mg/kg (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Point Source Controls The United States requires various lead smelting and processing facilities to use the best practicable control technology for new facilities and reasonable available control technologies for existing facilities, in addition, lead emissions from these and other industries are controlled via specific facility permits written by states. The states are responsible for ensuring air quality in each state meets, at a minimum, EPA's ambient air quality standards discussed above. To do so, states write site-specific permits for each lead source, designed to reduce emissions to the extent needed to meet EPA ambient air standards. EPA has initiated a voluntary programme based on the Toxics Release Inventory reporting, called the "33/50 Project," whiOh encourages industry to curtail emissions of 17 toxic 216 DUP040006700 I! ' Lead in Gasoline The US restricts the amount of lead allowed per litre of leaded gasoline to 0.026 grams. In addition to this limit, the United States required that, beginning in 1988, aii new Sight duty vehicles and trucks, motorcycles and heavy duty gasoline engines must operate on unleaded gasoline. Unleaded gasoline may not contain more than 0.01 g/i of lead (iRPTC/UNEP, 1990). As of March 1991, tetraethyl lead is no longer produced in the US. Under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, reformulated gasoline shall have no lead content. As of December 31, 1995, a total ban on leaded gasoline and lead gasoline additives will be in place for highway use. In addition, all motor vehicle engines and non-road engines manufactured after mode?year 1992 that require leaded gasoline will be prohibited. Reduction of lead in gasoline has been successful at reducing the level of lead in biooci in several countries, although the magnitude of the reduction has varied. A number of studies in the US (Annest et a!., 1983; Schwartz and Pitcher, 1989) have attributed a drop in blood lead levels in general populations from about 15 pg/dl to about 5 pg/dt to reductions in lead in gasoline (EPA, 1991a). Such reductions could yield substantial benefits. A1985 study conducted by EPA ; examined the benefits of reducing lead in gasoline in the US (EPA, 1985a). This study examined both health benefits dnd materials benefits of reducing exposure due to misfueling, improved fuel economy, and reduced maintenance costs associated with reducing the corrosive effects of Jead on engines and exhaust systems. The net benefits of the lead phase-down were estimated to range from $6 biilion and $7 billion. bead in Drinking Water in rules promulgated in June of 1991, the US EPA outlined new treatment requirements for drinking water systems (EPA, 1991b). The regulation requires tap water sampling from high risk homes (for example, lead service lines or lead soldering installed Since 1982), The first flush sample must be collected after water has sat in the household plumbing at least six hours. If at least 10 per cent of home tap samples exceed 15 (xg/l (the "action level"), corrosion control treatment and public education is required. Replacement of lead service lines is required if corrosion control fails to bring water lead levels below the "action level." The potential benefits of increased corrosion control are significant. EPA estimates that corrosion control treatment to comply with this rule will reduce lead exposure from drinking water two to three fold, and that monetized health benefits will total approximately $3-4 billion annually. Total monitoring aid treatment costs of the rule are estimated to range between $500 and $800 million per year (EPA, 1991b). EPA has also taken other activities related to lead in drinking water. Pursuantto the Lead Contamination Control Act of 1988, EPA identified drinking; water coolers that are not lead free (EPA, 1990). Based on this action, such water coolers became subject to action under CPSC jurisdiction. As a resuit of this action, in 1990, CPSC entered into a consent agreement with a major manufacturer of such water coolers to fund their repair/removai (CPSC, 1990a). Several additional future regulations are under consideration by EPA to reduce exposure to lead in drinking water (EPA, 1992b). First, a. more comprehensive ban on the sale of lead solder for use in drinking water plumbing is being considered. Even though the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1986 prohibited the use of lead solder in drinking water plumbing, lead soider can still be legally purchased by piumbers and home repairers. Further, this ban applied only to plumbing systems connected to public water systems (i.e. systems that serve more than 25 people or have more than 15 connections). Second, new regulations on fittings for drinking water plumbing are being contemplated. This would first specify a performance standard for leaching of lead from these fittings to ensure compliance with EPA's new drinking water regulations. After ten years, the 215 DUP040006701 Recycling Evidence suggests that lead-acid batteries are frequently recycled in the United States. Thirty-nine states and one city have enacted legislation to encourage recycling of lead-acid batteries, and a number of other states are considering similar proposals. Of these jurisdictions, 33 states and one city adopted laws that prohibit the disposal of lead-acid batteries in municipal solid waste and require ail levels of the collection chain to accept used iead-acid batteries. Ten of these 33 states also adopted a deposit in lieu of trade system, with deposits ranging from $5 to $1(3 per battery. Six states have banned the disposal of lead-acid batteries in municipal solid waste (ITA, 1993}. US legislation proposed in 1992 would encourage or require recycling for ail lead-acid batteries. The lead-acid battery not only accounts for the majority of lead consumption but has a higher recycling rate than any other recoverable material. The EPA's 1985 Report on the National Small Quantity Hazardous Waste Generator Survey (US EPA, 1985b) indicated that nearly 90 per cent of spent lead-acid batteries disposed by automobile service stations were sent to recycling facilities. A recycling rate study released by the Battery Council international k(a trade association representing the US and international lead-acid battery industry) reported an increase in the recycling rate from 88.6 per cent in 1987 to 97.8 per cent in 1990 (1TA, 1993). Education/Labelilng New proposed regulations for solder and brass plumbing fittings would require labels on products with information on the applicable use restrictions and rule language (EPA, 1992b). Arts and crafts materials containing lead must be labelled in accordance with the Labeling of Hazardous Art Materials Act of 1988. The Consumer Product Safety Commission has issued several publications on lead, including an alert on lead-based paint (CPSG, 1990b) and lead solder (CPSO, 1988). Increased public education and expanded requirements for product labelling are elements of recent proposed US lead legislation. A Federal Lead Clearinghouse/Hotline (1-800-532-3394), funded by EPA, HUD, the Department of Defense and CDC was put into service in 1992. information on lead exposure and what parents and homeowners can do to reduce lead in their child's environment is available. Occupational Standards The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the US Department of Labor has established environmental and biological standards for lead-using industries. Standards take the form of both permissible workplace air concentrations and permissible blood lead levels in workers. Environmental and biological monitoring must be conducted by the employer. Elevated blood lead levels may require the removal of an individual from the workplace (Niemeier, 1991). The current Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) generally limits air concentrations of lead to 50 pg/m3, except for the construction industry, which, if not achievable with engineering controls, may require the use of personal respirators. OSHA is required to lower the permissible exposure limit for lead in construction from 200 pg/m3 to 50 pg/m3. Subsequent rulemaking will deal with provisions for methods for compliance, medical surveillance, exposure monitoring training, and the need to limit exposures below 50 pg/m3. These activities are slated for 1993. Regulations established by OSHA prohibit general industry employees exposed to lead in their workplace from taking lead-contaminated work clothes from the work site, and require employers to provide hygiene facilities (showers, washing facilities) to lead workers. These 218 DUP040006702 pollutants, including lead. The specific aim of the project is to obtain commitments from companies to reduce voluntarily reported emissions, effluents and offsite transfers of these 17 poiiufants that are applicable to their operations in two phases - 33 per cent by 1992 and 50 per cent by 1995 - using 1988 as the baseline year. As of 1992,850 companies have agreed to participate in this programme. Federal effluent guidelines and pretreatment limits for lead-containing effluents exist for over 20 industries. These limits are implemented by states through facility-specific permits, and may be more stringent than federal requirements, depending on state water quality standards. In the US, certain lead-containing wastes are specifically listed as hazardous. These include wastes generated by inorganic pigment manufacturing, primary metals production, and secondary lead smelting. Other wastes are identified as hazardous if they exhibit a characteristic. The toxicity characteristic (TC) is determined by extracting the waste with a simulated leachate. If the concentration of lead in the extract exceeds the regulatory limit of 5 p.g/1, the waste is hazardous. ; Hazardous wastes must be managed by a permitted treatment, storage or disposal facility. Land disposal of most untreated hazardous waste is prohibited. Permitted facilities must perform groundwater monitoring and may be subject to corrective action if lead is found at levels exceeding specified concentration limits. Special rules apply to used oil, lead-acid batteries, and hazardous waste burned as fuel in boilers and industrial furnaces. Currently, municipal solid waste combustion ash is exempt from classification as a hazardous waste; in the past, this material was classified as hazardous because of failure of the TC test. EPA continues to consider regulations for industries that discharge lead into the air and water. These regulatory actions are taken in the context of overall effluent guidelines for various industries or air emissions limitations for new sources. Lead in Products Restrictions on lead in two major products, paint and gasoline, were discussed earlier. In addition to residential paint, the Consumer Product Safety Commission also regulates the use of lead paints and surface coatings used In toys, children's produots-.and household furniture (16 CFR 1303). Food cans and utensils are other important source of lead exposure. The US canning industry has undertaken a voluntary phase-out of the use of lead In food cans since alternative, affordable processes for sealing the seams of fin containers are available (FDA, 1992a), The US Food and Drug Administration regulates use of ceramics as food containers. Ceramics fired at low temperatures must carry warnings or have a hole to prevent use with food. Ceramic glazes are regulated under the Federal Hazardous Substances Act and must be labelled with health warnings and instructions for use (EPA, 1991c). In November 1991, FDA published non-binding guidelines for acceptable levels of lead in ceramic ware, which significantly reduce previous levels (FDA, 1991). Through voluntary co-operation of industry with FDA, it is expected that lead foil will not be used on wine bottles after 1993. The crystal ware industry is also sharing technology to reduce teaching of lead from lead crystal (FDA, 1992b). Eight US states have adopted legislation to limit the levels of lead in packaging materials (EPA, 1991c), The US has also instituted controls on lead in other products. The US restricts the use cf lead ammunition in an effort to reduce risks to wildlife that may inadvertently ingest lead shot, especially birds. Recently, the EPA requested information on pesticide products that contained lead as an inert ingredient. As a result, 11 pesticides containing lead were canceled, and four were reformulated with ingredients other than lead. There are no known current pesticides that use lead as a pesticide ingredient (EPA, 1992a). 217 DUP040006703 MOItpIp POULTRIES Nordic countries have undertaken a number of joint initiatives towards protecting the environment. Denmark, Sweden and Norway have signed the Ministerial Declaration of the Third International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea. This declaration states that the emissions of lead (and other micropollutants} shall within 1995 be reduced by 70 per cent compared to the level in 1985. Denmark, Finland and Sweden have through the Baltic Marine Environment Commission (HelCom) adopted the goal of reducing lead emissions by 50 per cent within 1995, using 1987 as a reference year. On the commission of the Ncrd'c Chemicals Group under the Nordic Council of Ministers, a rQjorl d v ritiinn Nordic e/periorrc-r regarding the technological possibilities for reducing the rise ol lea-: iG. hV'enrtrorn f- C.L Bjomsted, 1992} has been elaborated. The long-term goal for the Nordic count-nan is to completely eliminate the intentional use of lead in products and to minimize the amcur.i of lead discharged to the environment. The strategy to reach this goal includes in preferential order: a cleaner technology (substitution and process modifications}; effective recollection and recovery systems; environmentally acceptable waste treatment. f 220 DUP040006704  provisions are designed Jo ensure that family members will not be subjected to secondary exposure to lead as a result of lead workers' occupational exposures. Recent legislation requires OSHA to promulgate a final interim standard on occupational exposure to lead in the construction industry by mid-1993 (OSHA, 1992). / 219 DUP040006705 Lead-based Paint Beginning in 1989, the European Community prohibited the use of lead carbonates and lead sulfates in paints intended for all purposes other than preservation work (8S/677/EEC; Rea, 1987). Lead In Gasoline Beginning in 1987, the European Community limited lead levels in gasoline. No specific deadline is designated to the Member States for meeting standards, but a. committee v/as developed to provide scientific and technical support tor meeting the standards. The directive (82/210/EEC) sets the maximum permitted lead compound level of leaded gasoline at 0.15 grams lead per litre and defines unleaded gasoline as gasoline that contains less than 0.013 grams lead per litre (0.020 grams lead per litre applied in certain exceptional cases until 1991) (IRPTC/UNEP 1990). Lead In Drinking Water Beginning in 1977, the; European Community under Directive 75/440/EEC established classifications (i.e. A1, A2, and A3) for surface waters to be used as drinking water. Treatment methodologies were proposed for each classification with all sources having to meet a maximum lead ievei of 0.05 milligrams lead per litre (von Moltke, 1987). This directive was supplemented by another in 1981 (76/869/EEC) that recommended uniform methods of measurement and analysis for Member States. Effective in August of 1982, the Community maximum allowable lead concentration was established at 0.05 milligrams per litre (80/778/EEC) (von Moitke, 1987). Lead in Sewage Sludge The European Community has made concerted efforts to coordinate analysis of the treatment and use of sewage sludge among Member States, In July of 1989, standards (86/27S/EEC) for sewage sludge used in agricultural applications became effective, The lead concentration limit for soils with pH levels ranging from 6 to 7 is 50 to 300 mg/kg dry matter, while the limit for lead concentrations of substances in sewage sludge is 750 to 1200 mg/kg and the annual limit for lead in sewage sludge applied to agriculture is 15 kg/ha (based on a ten-year average). In addition to these standards, the directive established analysis and record keeping guidelines for the treatment and use of sewage sludge (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Standards for Environmental Media and Point Source Controls Several policies have been established within the European Community to protect shellfish areas, ground and surface waters, and bathing waters. In order to support shellfish communities, the European Community has designated (as necessary) coastal and brackish waters for protection and improvement (79/923/EEC). Beginning in 1981, Member States were asked to implement pollution reduction programmes within six years to protect these areas from lead as well as other heavy metal pollutants. The directive was written to support shellfish communities rather than bolster human consumption of shellfish (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). The European Community initiated efforts to protect exploitable ground water supplies in 1982 (80/68/EEC). At this time, inventory and surveillance measures were established to assess the extent of direct and indirect discharge of heavy metal pollutants into underground water 222 DUPQ40006706 .................................................... ........ ........ JLJILLL 9,11 1\ >" ' *' r ' ., , . . . . ' EUROP|m,C?|^WN{TY Although the European Community published environmental programmes in 1973,1977, and 1983, there were no explicit legal provisions for Community environmental actions prior to the Single European Act taking effect in 1987, Despite this fact, over 100 instruments (mostly directives for harmonizing environmental protection measures) for environmental protection were proposed by Member States from 1972 through 1986. Reflected in these instruments, as well as in those proposed after 1987, is a desire to control lead in the environment. The European Community has issued directives regulating lead in products and across, different environmental media and environmental sources. It is important to note that a directive is a, legislative action that is addressed to Member Slates arid may either contain very specific information or be narrative in nature. A directive often sets a deadline for the Member States to adopt the directive into their own countries' law; typically,, however, a directive will contain specific information, and will set a deadline on the order ;of three years, if a Member country fails to adopt, the directive into law within the specified amount of time, then action may be taken against that Member in the European courts. Legal realities compound the difficulty of achieving environmental protection across the twelve Member States of the European Community, for the Member States are at different stages of environmental(Contrbl, With varied levels of environmental awareness and/or concern, and have distinct regulatory entities. In regulating lead and other environmental hazards, the European Community must simultaneously prevent Member States from adopting rules that would inhibit trade within the community and limit the extent of weak and inadequate environmental policies. The experience of developing a lead policy in the EC exemplifies this regulatory challenge. For example, the European Community has issued policies that establish allowable lead contents for leaded and unleaded gasoline and encourage the use and manufacture of unleaded gasoline. Several F.uropean Community countries have switched to unleaded gasoline, but in countries such as Spain and Portugal, unleaded gas is a rare commodity. Despite these types of problems, the European Community has assembled an amalgam of instruments designed to control lead in the environment: Blood Lead Action Level In 1977, the European Community introduced a directive on biological screening of the population for lead (77/312/EEC) designed to identity and control sources of unacceptable lead exposure. Each Member State was required to survey blood lead levels of groups of at least 100 persons in urban areas (population greater than 500,000) and in areas where signifient exposure might be expected. At least two campaigns were required in each sampling area within a period of four years. Reference blood lead levels adopted for the study were 20 mg/dl for 50 per cent of a group, 30 mg/di for 90 per cent, and 35 mg/dl for 98 per cent. For most of the study populations, blood lead levels fell well within the reference values. However, a small number of areas were found in which reference vaiyes were exceeded and remedial measures were subsequently employed. A general decrease in population blood levels with time was apparent in most populations studied. 221 DUP040006707 Lead In Products To prevent product standards from hindering free trade, the European Community has taken steps to harmonize much of the quality standards and labeling standards for consumer products. As of 1988, the marketing of cosmetic products containing lead was prohibited {with the exception of capillary products containing lead acetate} (76/768/EEC) (IRPTC/UNEP 1990). Beginning in 1987, no more than 20 mg/kg lead may be contained in colouring matters and not more than 10 mg/kg lead in antioxidants and emulsifiers used for food (IRPTC/UNEP 1990). The maximum leaching rate for ceramic articles that can be filled is 4 mg/!; for ceramic cookware the maximum leaching rate is 1.5 mg/I. in addition to these standards, there is a proposal to restrict the maximum bioavailability resulting from children's use of toys to 0.7 pg for lead (von Moftke, 1987). Recycling A 1991 directive on batteries and accumulators containing dangerous substances (91/157/EEC) requires that Member States ensure that spent batteries containing more than 0.4 per cent lead by weight are collected and disposed of under controlled conditions. Specific requirements of the directive include marking of batteries to indicate metal content and need for separate collection, design of electrical appliances to enable ready removal of batteries, and the organization of separate collection systems including, if necessary, the use of economic instruments such as deposit systems to encourage recycling. Education/Labelling Beginning in June of 1988, paints, varnishes, printing inks, varnishes, and similar products that have one per cent weight associated with heavy metals (including lead), must be classified, packaged, and labelled according to European Commission standards (77/728/EEC) (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990, vpn Moitke, 1987). Occupational Standards Beginning in December of 1983, the European Community designated 14 measures to control occupational exposure to lead. These measures provided the basis for industrial programmes, requiring medical surveillance and providing workers with open access to medical results and knowledge of potential dangers in the workplace (80/1107/EEC) (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990; von Moitke, 1987). In 1986, the European Community supplemented these basic measures with monitoring and analysis techniques, concentration limits for air (0.15 mg/m3) and blood lead (70 pg/c'i), and action levels for air (40 pg/m3) and blood lead (40 pg/di) (82/605/EEQ) (ILZSG, 1989a; von Moitke, 1987). 224 DUP0400067Q8 H!:.' 1|. . dk Mi sources (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Effective in January of 1988, these measures were extended to include inland, surface, territorial, and coastal waters (76/464/EEC) (IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). Direct discharge methods and other disposal methods that may lead to indirect discharges are subject to the authorization of the European Community. Pollution reduction programmes are also encouraged to co-ordinate the authorization process as well as the development of alternative control options (von Moltke, 1987). The quality of baling wa*cr (7G/160/EEC) is specifically designated to be raised or mainfa nr.d over tirrr. Tor tvy-h heaifi-. and amenity benefits. Several parameters, including lead r,c'ic(.ru;nti-nc in v'fcYr, s -c i.-ced to determinr. [ho quality of the water. The European Commission has also coopted measures '<o specifically protect the Mediterranean Sea from ocean dumping. h`Oi Moitke, 1957). Programmes io coordinate ocean dumping prevention and assessment were initialed h 1977 afirr the Barcelona Convention. Other additional policy measures have been prcoorod to restrict ocean dumping of lead by requiring permits on a case by case basis {von Moitke, 1987). Beginning in December of 1987, the limit for ambient air concentrations of lead in air; (expressed as an annual average mean concentration) was set at 2 pg/m3 (82/884/EEC) (von Moitke, 1987). Member Stales that anticipate exceeding this level are required to notify the Commission and must implement measures to ensure no repeat exceedences. In 1982, the European Community encouraged the exchange of air monitoring data within the community (82/459/EEC) (von Moitke, 1987). By doing so, the community established a framework for comprehensive ambient air monitoring efforts. Beginning in June of 1987, the information exchange was formalized and plants that emitted high levels of pollutants, including lead, were required to use the best available technology (BAT), except in cases where costs were prohibitively excessive (84/360/EEC) (von Moitke, 1987). The burning and refining of used oil contributes markedly to ambient air pollution. Recognizing this source of air pollution, the European Community has taken measures to encourage the safe collection and disposal of waste' oil. Beginning in 1990, the discharge of waste oils to water and drainage systems, deposit or discharge to soii uncontrolled discharge of residues from processing, or any processing which causes high air pollution levels is prohibited (75/439/EEC) (von Moitke, 1987, IRPTC/UNEP, 1990). The use of chemicals in agricultural production may contribute to groundwater pollution, as well as ecological and human health risks. The European Community has established a committee to set maximum permissible levels for heavy metals (including lead) in fertilizer products (76/116/EEd) (von Moitke, 1987). To date, however, no standards have been set. The European Community has also taken initiatives to control the storage, treatment, and disposal of toxic and dangerous waste. To produce; or hold these wastes requires a permit within the European Community; whereas, the storage, treatment, and deposit of these wastes must be authorized (78/319/EEC). Beginning in 1987, the European Community agreed to conform to the standards set forth by the UN Economic Commission for Europe. These standards include labeling, contractual, and safety requirements (85/469/EEC) (IRPTC/UNEP 1990; ILZSG, 1989a). The European Commission has set feed standards to limit the exposure of livestock to lead. Maximum allowable lead contents were established for several products: straight feeding stuffs (10 mg/kg); complete feeding stuffs (5 mg/kg); complementary feeding stuffs (10 mg/kg); mineral feeding stuffs (30 mg/kg); and certain specified feeding stuffs (5 to 40 mg/kg) (jRPTC/UNEP, 1990). 223 DUP040006709 of capital costs associated with the construction of new facilities were estimated to be for purposes of risk reduction. Reduction of fugitive dust emissions from concentrates to be used by smelters has been commonplace throughout the international industry. Upgrading or replacement of systems for concentrate storage and/or transport has been implemented at multiple facilities. Costs associated with such capital improvements are variable, but have typically been on the order of $2 to 10 million per production facility. Windbome migration at many facilities is further limited by intensive on-site water sprinkling programmes. Lead emissions during the smelting process have been reduced by a variety of measures. Upgrading of existing facilities, or replacement with new smelting technologies, has been 'Commonpiace''throiighout,iOECb'<Member"COuntries. Although the adoption of more sophisticated and efficient smelting technologies is not entirely for the specific purpose of emission reduction, such objeclives are generally a1 significant part of the justification for such changes. Specific measures to limit airborne emissions during smelting have been implemented throughout the industry. Technology for reducing the lead content of exhaust gases has been evolving and industry adoption of newer methods is widespread. Replacement of scrubbers and other methods of fume collection by high-efficiency electrostatic and bag filters had been implemented, or is ongoing, in multiple sectors of the international industry. Incorporation of more sophisticated emission control systems on ancillary systems (for example, electrostatic precipitators on acid plants) have also rebuked lead emissions. Costs for the installation of such emission control systems are highly variable and dependent upon the nature and scale of the facility. Technology for the reduction of lead in wastewater has been evolving similarly. Water purification plants and upgraded sewer systems have been installed at many lead production facilities at costs that range up to $20 million per facility. Solid waste materials produced by smelters are disposed of in accordance with regional regulatory requirements. The volume of waste generated, and/or its lead content, has generally evidenced a steady decline. At least two factors contribute to this trend. The advent of more sophisticated smelting technologies has improved the efficiency with which lead is extracted from concentrates. Improved process efficiency also permits production facilities to divert significant volumes of formerly discarded waste material back into the lead smelting process. The preceding control efforts have had a significant impact upon lead emissions from smelting facilities. Based upon industry data, atmospheric emissions of lead over the past 20 years have typically been reduced by up to 90 per cent. Much of this reduction has been achieved over the past five to ten years. Discharges of lead in water have evidenced similar declines, with much of this similarly occurring over the past five to ten years. Large lead production facilities reported cumulative expenditures of up to $100 million each to achieve these reductions. Several large lead production facilities maintain monitoring programmes which permit some assessment of the impact of emission control efforts upon surrounding human populations and the environment. Voluntary blood lead monitoring programmes have been established in the vicinity of several smelters within the past five to ten years. Declines in children's blood lead levels, ranging from 25 to 65 per cent, have been reported. These declines must be interpreted within the context of overall declines in genera! population blood lead levels evident throughout much of the OECD membership, but do provide evidence that emission control systems have significantly reduced the lead exposure of nearby residents. Only very limited monitoring of biota in the vicinity of smelters was reported, but appear to evidence a similar trend (for example, 50 per cent decline in the lead content of marine organisms). 226 DUP040006710 INDUSTRY RISK REDUCTION INITIATIVES The Internationa! non-ferrous metals producing industry has effected a variety of initiatives which can be considered iead "risk reduction" measures. Summaries of these activities are provided in this section. These initiatives generally fall into one of several categories, as follows: 1} changes in processing technology and/or emission controls; 2) implementation of medical surveillance and occupational hygiene programmes for exposed workers; 3} support of research to validate the effectiveness of existing occupational and general population exposure limits and to develop new monitoring procedures for insuring human and environmental health; and 4) implementation of product stewardship programmes to inform (downstream users of lead of the., precautions which should be exercised so as to protect the health of employees and consumers. The information presented in this o"ep/'e'"wcc, in large pert, co:!ac,urt,';a a cucoionnsire admin si*?, ed tv fie iutcrnsiional industry ' y ;hf IrSmctinuaJ L'-ar' Zvr fv search Cigsniz^iinr, in early IOC 2. Respondents to the questionnaire included corporation? lead product'on, caps '.i icc comprise significant pmponi'jii of both annua1 g!o!'C' prodooMot. and procuct.cn in OECD Monicer cour tries. Responses to this questionnaire were not received from all lead proa using industries. 4s s result, the information presented must bo viewed as a qualitative over/itt" that is likeiy to be incomplete in ` -om*- areas. Similarly. risk reduction measures impleirerned by *he industry enow evidence or geogrcc-iic variation tha* is rf/ltctive of regional! diffetericc in the perception of rolnti,'c risk ecccciated with lead The ne`u-f- :,rw e/tent of risk reduction activity by industry in individual countries is, thus, variable The foilov'ing sumrn; r.t- attempts to depict industry rick reducrirr. efforti that have beer effected throughmi4, mosfi of the indi.slry in OECD Member countries, Efforts unique to a specific geographic, region or country ar-. noted as such. Changes in Processing Technology A broad variety of processing changes have been implemented at mining/smelting operations, resulting in a net reduction in the emission of lead to the environment. Many of these changes reflect tne natural evolution of processing technology towards more efficient and inherently less polluting methods. Some changes have been made in response to regulatory agencies, others through voluntary emission reduction initiatives. This overview will summarize the nature and costs of the changes which have been effected over the past 20 years and will focus upon production facilities whose primary product is lead. However, it should be recognized that co-produption of imetals is the norm in the nonferrous metals industry and that lead is often a significant "by-product" of the production of other metals. Technological advancements have also produced emission reductions from facilities that co-produce significant quantities of lead (for example, zinc or copper production facilities), but the information received was not adequate to discuss these1 facilities in detail. The costs associated with various risk reduction measures are difficult to ascertain with accuracy. Where feasible, cost estimates are provided in US$ to provide a bench-mark measure of industry activity in specific areas. However, these cost estimates must be viewed with recognition of the limitations of the varied data base from which they have been drawn. Risk reduction initiatives have been implemented over time and in different regions of the globe. Adjustments for inflation and changing currency exchange rates are problematic in general. Questionnaire responses indicate that international expenditures for risk reduction activities comprise 15 to 25 per cent of the annual operating costs of a typical primary or secondary iead production facility. Analysis of regulatory compliance costs in the United States by the US Bureau of Mines reinforces this estimate (Bureau of Mines, 1987a,b; 1988). Approximately 40 per cent 225 DUP040006711 broad variety of independent research efforts seeking to more accurately define the effects of lead exposure. Recent studies conducted in North America, the EC and Northern Europe provide good examples of such interactions. Product Stewardship Initiatives Regional industry trade associations have been implementing product stewardship programmes so as to advise downstream users of lead, as well as consumers, of the potential hazards associated with lead exposure. These activities are highly varied in both nature and scope and are probably best described by example. The Lead Industries Association of the United States (LIA), for instance, has been active in the production and distribution of training materials designed to acquaint downstream users of lead of the precautions which should be observed in the occupational environment This effort has included an annual Health Conference for Physicians and Allied Health Professionals designed to acquaint health professionals with the medical issues associated with lead exposure. LIA has. also encouraged monitoring programmes to survey die blood lead levels of children and other atrisk individuals residing in the vicinity of primary and secondary smelters and promoted the adoption of voluntary in-plant goals to lower worker lead exposures to below regulatory limits. In an effort to enhance lead recycling by the small industry user, LIA has also developed and circulated a le`ad recycling directory which identifies specific locations in North America which will accepl certain types of lead scrap. Finally, LIA has undertaken the organization of research efforts to assess the exposure risk to the general population posed by specific product applications. The activities of organizations such as LIA have been complemented by the actions of specific user groups such as the Battery Council International (BCI). As an organization representing the interests of the automotive and industrial lead-acid battery manufacturers, BCI has successfully undertaken the development of initiatives to encourage the recycling ot batteries. Model legislation developed by BCI to help further this goal has been adopted by a number of regions in the United States. The European Federation of Capsule Manufacturers (EUCAPA) agreed in June 1990 to Stop the production of lead containing capsules for over corking wine bottles. Paint producers and can manufacturers in some OECD countries have voluntarily agreed to phase out the use of lead in high risk applications (for example, food cans, residential paints). Finally, the international industry has recently formed the International Council on Metals in the Environment (ICME). The members of this organization are associated with the production of numerous non-ferrous metals, including lead. ICME is in the process of developing guidelines designed to facilitate international efforts to Insure the safe use of metals, such as lead, by multiple sectors of industry. 228 DUP040006712 As more sophisticated technologies for ore processing and emissions control are developed, the discharge of lead into the environment by the producing sectors of the industry should evidence further declines. In addition, the major lead producing companies in the United States have announced their intention to participate in the voluntary "33-50" pollution reduction initiative announced by the United States government. These companies will actively work to achieve an additional 33 per cent reduction in emissions by 1992, and a target of 50 per cent reduction by 1995. implementation of Medical Surveillance and Occupational Hygiene Programmes in accordance with regional regulatory guidelines, most of the international lead industry" maintains rigorous medical surveillance programmes for the monitoring ot occupational exposures to lead. Regional differences with respect to these guidelines are apparent. Medical removal levels for lead workers will typically range between 50 and 80 pg/dl of blood lead. Standards for occupational exposure to airborne lead also vary among OECD countries, with 50, 100 and s 150 jig/m3 all being specified in national regulations or legislation. 1 Over the past five years, industries in several geographic regions of the OECD membership have made significant voluntary efforts to improve occupational hygiene practices and to reduce average blood lead levels. Engineering controls backed by personal hygiene and other protective programmes are employed by lead producing and consuming industries to minimize worker exposure, and, in areas where exposure iimits cannot otherwise be met, persona! respirators are employed. Correlations between lead in air and lead in blood are generally poor, with good personal hygiene widely regarded as the most significant factor in limiting exposure. This factor aisd serves to minimize the transport of lead particles into the home. The cost of such voluntary efforts, which set in-plant goals to lower worker exposure, are difficult to estimate. However, the implementation of such programmes has resulted in significant reductions in blood iead levels in the industry. The general lead industry in OECD Member countries reports reductions of the average employee blood lead level of approximately 30 to 40 per cent over the past 20 years. As a reflection of this, the number of individuals exceeding the various regional medical removal standards has fallen dramatically. Typically, a facility employing 1,000-2,000 employees may experience only a few medical removal cases per year. This represents an approximate 90 per cent decline in the frequency of medical removal actions. Research Support The international industry funds significant environmental health research programmes through the International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRQ). Annual ILZRO expenditures for the cond uct of lead health-related research will typically range between $400,000 and $600,000, Many of these programmes are oriented towards the assessment of the adequacy of existing medical removal standards or elucidation of any health effects which might be observed at current occupational blood lead levels. Substantive efforts are also being made to develop new technologies and biomarkers for the monitoring of worker health. Finally, multipie research programmes have been implemented to investigate the effect of lead exposure upon the general population and the environment. Many of these research programmes are conducted in cooperation with, and frequently with co-sponsorship by, regional regulatory bodies. Thus, cooperative research programmes with funding entities such as the EC or US ERA has been occurring with increasing frequency. Research sponsorship by a variety of regional organizations has also become increasingly commonplace. In addition, the international industry has encouraged worker participation in a DUP040006713 r HT* APPENDIX A (CHAPTER 5) LEAD RISK REDUCTION ACTIVITIES: SUMMARY TABLES Proposed or planned actions are In bold. 229 DUP040006714 . `t' ' . .. ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA < Ofc*'nr United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico PBn^*'*a>eAW^*'!sr!>s'> >4 - sj c . **-:'*-!. '*'*"**--" ' ' ** ensu:**'* ' ml w w the maximum concentration of lead in drinking water at the point of supply is 50 pg/l; regulations also require water companies to install further treatment where there is a nsk of the standard being exceeded at the customer's tap; water companies are required to replace their lead communication pipe where requested to do so by a customer who has replaced his lead supply line to the kitchen tap; some discretionary grants made available to customers for repair and r<?pl3cment e<ff stiv-1 \j< -v ruber of 1992, the 90th percentile measurement of a sampling of tao water may not cycled.the fpyi$f tffijigif; ki-ml, then the water systems will be required to optimize corrosion control and take other rnr^surr until the 9C1h percentile measurement falls below the lead action level {6/7/S1 56 FR 25*60): ur.t'l ihe effective date of the new rule, the 1975 standard for water of 0.05 mg/I remains n^s^!v=; future regulations for solder and brass fittings contemplated maximum allowable level of lead in drinking water is 0.05 mg/I 1 , prinking water and its sources must not exceed 0.05 mg/i lead 232 DUP040006715 ' * * t J. ' : ;vi: -------- ------------ --. _ ^^j!iig!g"jL-a. ,, a,. = ENVIRONMENTAL. MEDIA --j --r=srr-r^=-=s-=n -1- ' . t %r l||lf|g|jjf|j[^^ ' ,-',* r ; * 'r P Australia NH & MRC recommends maximum lead concentration in water for domestic requirements 0.05 mg/I (legal in ACT and WA); in ACT, maximum lead concentration in raw water supply 0.05 mg/I Austria maximum p*rmicsibls lead concentration O.O^ mp/l (guideline value) Belgium f Canada || maximum lead concentration in drinking water 10 pg/l; new plumbing code permits maximum 0.2% labile i(/^ir;':b|r0$s|it|rii^|||!|!|lfImltejclito |&|ea^bpriteMt;;f|:'' Finland maximum permissible lead concentration in drinking waiter is 0.05 mg/lj the use of lead-containing pipes is forbidden in drinking water systems Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy, Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey :i maximum lead concentration in drinking water is 50 pg/l , leaded pipes are no longer being installed in new piping systems and are gradually being replaced 1 in existing installations; maximum lead concentration in drinking water at the mams connection is 0.04 mg/I; if the lead concentration exceeds 0.04 mg/1 at the tap, the house owner or landlord must replace the piping ori request; copper pipes for drinking water supply systems have to be soldered , With lead-free alloys (SnCu, SnAg) , mo: data available 1 Ireland adheres to the EC's maximum lead concentration in drinking water of 0.05 mg/I; lead piping is gradually being removed in response to public awareness campaigns iijij maximum permissible lead concentration in drinking water is 0.1 mg/1; the value will be revised to f 0.05 mg/I in December 1093 ' the EC standard of 0.05 mg/I has been enacted in Dutch legislation; lead service lines are removed whenever repairs are made; however, there are no incentives for removing old lead pipes i guideline value of 0.05 mg/I; the standard is proposed to be reviewed in 1993 to align with the new WHO Guidelines ,i drinking water is considered unsuitable when the lead concentration is over 0.02 mg/I; good drinking water shall contain less that 0;005 rng/l , the Bureau of Standards specifications recommend a limit of 0.05 mg/I but allow 0,1 mg/I; under the Health Act, 0.1 rng/l will become a legal limit ! drinking water is considered unsuitable when the lead concentration reaches 0.05 rng/l; installations that are in contact with drinking water must be made of materials that leach less than 0.05 rng/l; water pipes are not made out of lead i max!mum allowable level of lead in drinking water is 0.05 mg/I; the use of lead-containing pipes or tubes is prohibited i nc data available 231 DUP0400Q6716  .. ..% 1 . . ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA 1| ,*r . 1 ,j/> *M` A 1 t lA' - . ? > "A. v '1 V A. - . ^ Australia recommended criteria set at 1.5 ug/m3, averaged over 3 continuous months; adopted as legal limit in Victoria, ACT, and Tasmania Austria ambient air quality {lead content) is influenced by regulations for gasoline lead content and emissions of air from point sources Belgium ' Canada the lead concentration in the general atmosphere, annually averaged, must not exceed 2.0 ug/m3 jrj: ': " ' ''" ;:l|,':!' !;:" ' - y` Denmark 2.0 ug/m3 annual average (EC directive) Finland Franca Air Quality Criteria is 2 ug/m3, annual averse value (EC directive) Germany i, maximum lead concentration in the general atmosphere 2.0 ug/m3 (annutd mean); the maximum lead deposition rate from air onto soil is 0.25 mg/rn4 per day Gresca Iceland no data available Ireland Ireland adheres to the EC's limit on maximum lead levels in ambient air of 2 ug/m3 Italy maximum concentration of lead in the atmosphere is 2.0 ug/m3, as mandated by the EC directive Japan .................... Luxembourg l ....... . ................. ............ .......... . ..................... .......... .......... ....... ; .......... Netherlands j Air Quality Guideline; lead concentration not to exceed 2.0 ug/m3 (24-hour average) New Zealand I New Zealand has proposed a national ambient air .quality guideline of 1.0 pg/m3 for 1 an average time of 3-month moving average Norway | no guidelines are presented; the observed values are low, and decreasing Portugal | Spain: ' maximum lead concentration in the general atmosphere 2.0 ug/m3 by Royal Decree Sweden r" Switzerland u maximum permissible lead concentrations (annual averages): suspended dust: 1 pg/m3, redeposition: 109 pg/m3 per day Turkey <f no data available United Kingdom ' UK adheres to the EC directive which limits lead in air to ,2.0 pg/m3, mean annual concentration United States maximum permissable lead concentration: 1.5 pg/ms (quarterly average); more stringent standard being considered European Community maximum permissible lead concentration 2 pg/m3 (annuai average mean concentration) Mexico ------------ ------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ------------ ------- 234 DUP040006717 J ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland . France Germany Greece Iceland | Ireland Italy iU:apart| Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand , Norway Portugal 1 : Spain Sweden Switzerland ,, Turkey | Mf " ! !' United Kingdom United States European Community ! j 1 | Mexico r iL UL A limits for Victoria: FRESH WATER: 0.03 mg/l; MARINE WATER: 0.05 mg/I 1 surface water quality is improved by limitation of industrial emissions to 0.5 mg/l; bathing water is also monitored FRESHWATER: maximum permissible lead content 0.001 to 0.007 mg/l; IRRIGATION: 0,2 1 mg/l; LIVESTOCK WATERING: 0.1 mg/l " surface waters that are used for the production of drinking water are limited to 50 pg/l of lead . "except in exceptional circumstances after the advice of the Conseil superisur rfhygiene i publique i, EC limit value is used: <0.05 mg/l ; |, : ': ' Ji jfracdata.available \j SEA WATER: 0.1 mg/I; FRESH WATER: 0.05 mg/i (recommendation) ! .J ^surface water: 0.1 mg/i; value revised to 0.01 mg/I as of March 1S93 lip!. i ipino guidelines are presented; the observed values are low 1If: '' ' i ,| PROTECTED WATERWAYS: 0.1 mg/l; CONTROLLED WATERWAYS: 0.5 mg/l s I" "l Quality Standard: 0.05 mg/l i|j| * jiiino data available : ll| i j guided by Environmental Quality Standards J ;; FRESH WATER: varies by water hardness; most stringent standards: maximum 4-day 1 average of 1.3 p.g/f and maximum 1-hcur average of 3.4 p.g/1; SALT WATER: maximum average concentration of 5.5 pg/l, not to be exceeded more than once over a 3-day period ! MARINE WATER QUALITY: Member States are to establish pollution reduction programs > such that within six years of designation the waters conform witfi values set by Member States for the protection of shellfish and their larvae; SURFACE WATER QUALITY: pollution i: reduction programmes encouraged for dischargers that threaten the quality of surface waters; BATHING WATER QUALITY: is also monitored til SALTWATER: lead concentration must not exceed 0,006 mg/l more than once over a 3-year i period; WATER FOR AGRICULTURAL IRRIGATION must not exceed 5,0 mg/i lead; DRINKING WATER for livestock must not exceed 0.1 mg/l lead 233 DUP040006718 NMM1 ENVIRONMENTAL, SOURCES Australia Austria individual states set technology requirements and air quality standards for smelters and processing facilities; most standards set at 10 mg/m3; ACT limit for municipal combustors 10 pg/m* nirtalrc ` .-(''com r'.r.j vmrirO-r- andr.trcr-ion rr.or rr.-=-ei'I'-ics' -.reraisse? is 10 rrgr-n' on` urii,*`tvi r m" '.n l~, 'e am vpo r iirr. tmr <!<i.'t ccr.r-in'no irv,if.:nie rubrtarw "ft at E mg Fr'm\ tor emissions *v.sr,vii vj p otrtlirur; sccorri-rn -osite /ufman Steam Eni'<=r Ant, tl-s run of te-d, tin ~v i chrem'un incAicnc `heir r.omwjnds in i baler plant emisrions is limited to 2-5 mg/m3, d-o'-ndinn n~ t.V- mogn n-'de cf the combi#ter. Belgium , no general standard, limits set individually for d f.'-reni ptonts but typically V np/m: Canada Finland secondary smelters: particulate emissions timit-n frr-m 23 nvi'rr. to 4C rnrrr.3 rtapnding on , the operation; other operations are limited by pro.'ioc.- or the ' mLr of 20 trntor tor smelters, and 14 to 15 mg/m3 for refineries --- -- " - : 1 ' > , ' 'i;//: "i! provincial governments set limits for particulate emissions from individual facilities' by this < means, the emissions of lead are also reduced Denmark --- _------ ; France , limits set for individual plants the sum of the concentrations ol 4 heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cu, and Mn) in the emissions from 1 .industrial! waste incinerators with a nominal capacity of 1 ton of waste per hour must not ', exceed 5 mg/m3; various regional authorities set limits ranging from 5 to 30 mg/m3 for total < dust emissions; local authorities define regulations for smelters on a specific basis Germany ieao emissions from lead smelters and other non-ferrous metallurgical works are limited to 5 1 mg/m?; total dust emissions, of which lead is a constituent, is limited to values between 10 and 20 mg/m3; the lead emission from battery manufacturing sites is limited to 0.5 mg/m3; dust emissions from waste incinerators, containing Pb, Sb; As, Cr, Co, Cu; Mm Ni, V, Sn, Pt and Pd must not exceed 1 mg/m3 Greece | Iceland j [ no data available Ireland' '' Italy ' ,,j emission limits may be set by local authorities as a condition of granting planning permission ; (I permissible lead concentrations in industrial emissions are variable depending on toe location ; of toe plant (e.g. in Lombardy region, typical standards for particulates in toe air are 10 mg/m3 and for lead in toe air are 3.3 mg/m3) Japan Luxembourg | roasting furnace, convertor, smelting furnace, and drying furnace used for refining lead eta.: 1 10 mg/m3; baking furnace and smelting tamacs used for glass manufacturing: 20 mg/m3; 1 sintering furnace and blast furnace used for refining lead: 30 mg/m3; stricter standards exist ; ( by Prefects!rail Government Ordinance Netherlands ... New Zealand the 1S06 Dutch Combustion Guideline defines a limit of 1.0 mg/m3 for toe combined concentration of 9 melass, including lead, in the combustion of industrial and chemical waste and household refuse; toe standard is enforced by prescribing toe precise types of machinery to be used in relation to the type of waste being incinerated - |1 ;; _ Norway. ' Portugal ; individual discharge permits ,issued for each plant, normally 5 mg/m3 ' ' 11 .Spain ....... ...........................i lead in Industrial emissions varies depending on the size and date of constoJction of toe plant - for plants emitting fess than 300 ms/min limits are 120,100, and SO mg/m3 for those built before 1975, between 1975 and 1980, and since 1980 respectively; for plants emitting more than 300 mVmin, toe corresponding limits are 20,15, 10 mg/m3; ground level emissions are !--also limited to...5.0...g../.m..3. {3-0--m_in...u. te.. m..a..x.i.m...u.m..)^o..r..1..0.. g:_/_m;_3_(_8_-h_o_u_r m_axim__um) _____ 236 DUP040006719 1 ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA UwarerKf | Australia `irMtl 4bc "v s#`%;t --t e v % ** * ***** -* -v * t *. " w * * *-*** n * * 'V Austria limit for agriculture is 100 mg/kg soil; an Austrian ordinance defines a limit tor the lead input of dust deposited in woodland to 2.5 kg/ha per year Belgium Canada i , contaminated sites: criteria for assessment, 25 pg/g; for remediation, 375 pg/g for , agricultural land, 500 pg/g for residential, 1000 pg/g commercial Denmark Finland France toe heavy metal content, including lead, in fertilizers has been assessed as part of a strategy to reduce heavy metals in fertilizers and soil Germany ...................... Greece " ;. Iceland ' ' many German states have limited the lead concentration in the soil at children's playgrounds to 200 mg/kg; in Morthrhine-Westphaiia playground (sandbox) sand is limited to 20 mg Pb/kg r ; I- ................ ' ................... - ........................ |!i|jr no data available > Ireland Italy Japan limit: 0.1 mg/I by leach test - test liquid Is prepared by mixing and shaking the soil sample with 10 times as much water as the weight of the sample Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand . Norway no guidelines are presented, but criteria in the "Dutch list" for contaminated land are used (50-600 mg/kg dry soil) Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey j total lead limited to 50 mg/kg; soluble lead to 1 mg/kg | no data available United Kingdom | 500 mg/kg domestic, 2000 mg/kg recreational United States the EPA adopted an interim guidence on 12/3/89 stating that soil cleanup activities at CEFtGLA sites where the current or predicted land use Is residential should take place when toe soil lead levels exceed 500 to 1000 ppm; if leachate from soil contains =* 5 rng'i, lead, soil is subject to RCRA and/or CERCjLA actions (remediations and restricted disposals) European Community maximum permissible lead concentration in soil to receive sewage sludge 50 to 300 mg/kg (depending on pH); the limit on sewage sludge applied to agricultural soils is 15 kg of lead/ha/yr (based on 10-year average) Mexico 235 DUP040006720 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES Australia Austria si j| Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany i Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal -Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey industrial effluents variable, typically 0.05 mg/I; ocean 1.0 mg/I; 0.008 to 0.2 mg/I for estuaries | lead in industrial ollluer** iinitoo r-j O.C rnp'l; proper- o: 0.5 rml mrtolllc surface coating plants and !rrrli-tr; 0.05 ingn far >-^`i * ^lu-frirp plrr.l' | limits vary according l~ r..::ire o pint c-rv. r-cv .;r.f* "fpi^r tyoivli/ c 05 ' ; 3,0 mg/i | fur n'l occro^unr cp'Ti'-p nr I'.-'e"ir." p-'-'v'cL'cn ln77: Ie-d concentration | in effluents Cmqr* (men:,hi r 'vecs^-', l ps ! 0.4 rag-t (siiigle m? /iruvr); MCTAb fi ' FIMIS.-I'l'f', Ivd co-icrin'rrtisn in effluents 1.5 mg/I; for pie-1977 mines, 1.5 mg/I of lead in effluents is a guideline em-'oim- imils are set"on a case by case basis during the environmental permit procedure: limit? vi-iy from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/1, according to the nature of the receiving water load t :i ntrafions in industrial effluents (from incineration facilities for urban waste) is lii.-.iVd to '..0 mg/I of lead (before discharge) and is governed by regional authorities; | disc hares: to groundwater ot wastes containing lead from hazardous waste installations | nss bem orahibited 1 1 *' ! ofrC '. soharges, limits vary from 0.3 to 2.0 mg/I according to the type of plant; the j u*.vjrmir.riatfcR for discharge into municipal water treatment systems in several Federal ' * totes is C.2 mg/I; effluents from non-ferrous metals plants, mills, foundries and electroplating plants is 0.5 mg/I no data available maximum ooncentrainn ft lead in industrial effluents discharged to sewers is 0.3 mg/1 and discharged directly to surface waters is 0,2 mg/1 > lead in industrial effluents limited to 1.0 mg/I by a national law (revision of this value Is currently being considered); standards vary from 0.1 to 0.8 mg/l by Perfectuai Governmental Ordinance lead in industrial effluents varies according to the nature and location of plant and nature of receiving water; for plating and comparable indusbies tito recommended limit is. .3.0 mg/l J no data available ;jj individual discharge permits issued for each plant, normally between 0.5-10 mg/I j | industrial effluents discharged into rivers, lakes, etc. are limited to 0.5 mg/l; industrial effluents discharged into the sea ffom the land, through submarine outlets; 50% of the samples must be less than 7.5 mg/l and not more than 10% may exceed 15 mg/i ` no national emission limits exist, but water containing heavy metals including lead should be treated; limits vary by facility and according to BestAvailable Technologies (BAT) : effluent limited to 0.5 mg/i no data available 238 DUP040006721 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES i v IP 1 V,,:i:Vt/ a ! n' Sweden no national standard exists; however, under the Environmental Protection Act, leadcontaining gases should be appropriately collected and controlled by fabric filters: standards very by facility nH acoo"tins to Best Available Technologies (BAT) Switzerland general nrrassion iirr.it for contour-tor" v-th r.iosr flow greater than 25 g/hr: 5 mg/m3; tl.p mponvim nnrv ntmtirj". cf the cum of l*sc and ?mc from munidpai indnerators: 1 mg/m3; rodeco-ition limited to 100 pc/nf/day: euscended dust limit 1 pg/m3 (annua! average) k ' Turkey no data available United Kingdom ths Beet Frcdi^b1.' Means (BPM) must be used to treat/contrcl industrial emissions; ! thn norm; 1 iim't for lead is 0.002 g/m3 and 0.01 g/m3 in cases cf special difficulty; total I | particulates m mi not exceed 0.1 g/m3 ..............? 1 United States . j i crr.'ssionr standard determined for individual plants by State authorities responsible for ' " i 1 inpiemsot-rici' cf Federal ambient air quality standards- various lead smelting and | pro'-ersino fadiirie*- are required to use the best practicable andtor available contra) | 'ethnology European Community ( I'ccn^i-ip cf lead po'luting induatria! facilities Is required; Best Available Technology | (BAT) is c!`.o required: Mexico 1 lead envtsicns from lead smelters and other non-ferrous metallurgical works are 1 1'railed to 5 mctar: total dust emissions, of which lead is a constituent, are limited to ** v j -|ik rcn 10 nnd SO mg/m3; lead emissions from battery manufacturing sites are | BrJt^d to OX mg/m3; dust emissions from waste incinerators, containing Pb.iSb, As, I Ci, Co, Cu, M.i, Ni,,V, and Sn, must not exceed 1 mg/m3 237 DUP040006722 |p||^^^|l||J^^^|||p| v .: - - * * ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES ^a T ,1' 'j1' W1__ Australia Austria. Belgium > Canada Finland Denmark .Franca Germany Greece ..................... Iceland Ireland Italy , Japan :" Luxembourg " Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal ........... Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico Austrian states have different regulations for lead content in sewage siudge; upper limit for agricultural use is between 100 and 500 mg Pb/kg dry substance 1; guidelines for lead content in sewage sludge used on agricultural land: lead content' j of sludge 150 mg/kg d.w., distribution of lead through siudge on agricultural soils 150 g/ha per year spreading of sewage sludge must not occur if the lead content exceeds 800 ppm the use of sewage siudge for agricultural purposes is legally restricted if its lead content exceeds 900 mg/kg; agricultural soils with a lead content greater than or ., equal to 100 mg/kg may not be treated with any sewage sludge ' INI no data available " ;i < recommended limits for lead in sewage siudge intended for application to arable land are: a maximum acceptable .concentration in dry sewage sludge of 600 npkg, a limit value allowable in soil of 300 mg/kg, and a maximum cumulative loading of 125 kg/ha. sewage sludge limited to 300 g lead/tonne dry weight; future regulations for sewage limit 100 g lead/tonne dry weight for agricultural use and limit 300 g lead/tonne dry weight for other uses :y for spreading in agriculture, lead content limited to 500 mg Pb/kg no data available regulations cover lead content of soils receiving sludge as well as controls on application of siudge containing lead proposed regulations for use and disposal of sewage sludge containing lead; for land application, cumulative lead loading of lead limited (2/6/89 54 PR 5880) maximum concentration of lead in sewage siudge 750-1200 mg/kg 240 DUP040006723 pipsi^^ *..t- - *' . United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES Miiifl|iliijiiiiij^^ 1, I permissible lead concentration varies according to the location of tire plant and nature of the receiving water - typically 1.0 to .5.0 mg/I 1 !t!D'JSTR!*L EFFLUEf'^S: pinvny zni- ceoond^r/smelters: n 1C mg/I monthly I rr.a'-irr.um. 0 ?E rof ` d^:'.' -ns'"m,jr r tr der/ nicnutrctiir >j 0 20 n-o'l; monthly J riT-imum, 01'* mr4 d='!-' ms1 mum Kao one's plans: zr-n dischai-oe.standard;]industry- f specific guidel'rac for cur 20 Industrie's S1 prcpofl tc r*T'rif:t *>c"rn diimpirip ef'' " d-contrininn cfodudr '' l > d c.'r'in`:?Vn ; rr.p'all'c induct1-' ef`lu<-.nr 0 1 mo/l; copper industry | rffiient. i o rr.^;rninm'|ii`: rrainir'in-'s- c=" cUi^n:, >n/cl r-niiig, and photography I!,{developing, water effluents: 1.0 mg/I: urban and municipal wastewater used for 1!' agricultural irrigation: 0.50 mg../^I i'^i^1Jaifad ;, V. Vfto i,,- -.1. .... ,, ......... ...... 239 DUP040006724 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES '>vrv> Australia Austria Belgium i(f:|||i|i^i3i;' - vj;` 1 Denmark Finland France Germany Greece i Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Nonway .:j; -A | || maximum lead concentration of 0.50 g/kg in dust on materials transported or stored by industry; lead paint removal operations on steel bridges have to take place under : effective emission control measures ? no data available \ 1 | -| 1~ | | | | individual discharge permits issued for each plant, normally 50 jpg/m3 Portugal j Spain i ' ;' i Sweden :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' s Switzerland II ?, ' 1 '' 1' Turkey ! the suspended particulate standard for lead in dust is 1 pg/m3 '"ii no data available United Kingdom United States ' European Community Mexico HUD Interim Guidelines set clearance levels in household dust: 200 pg/sq. ft. on ii floors, 500 pg&q. ft. Oh window sills, 800 pg/sq. ft on window weds (HUD, 1990) ;j| jj ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ | 242 DUP040006725 ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES i* w ^ m i* t ',(! .'t *F * Australia Austria limit of emissions of leadj-zinofchromium+their compounds caused by combustion of ' waste oils in power stations is 4 mg/m5; products containing toxic metals are defined .as hazardous after their lifetime; handling and reporting of hazardous waste is also iregulated " Belgium t Canada Finland ' Denmark n; a | classified as hazardous wastes lilpjy' I-' v'":' ........ i ............. ' " 1'. 1 ' " ' France Germany [iildisposal covered by Waste Disposal Law . Greece Iceland .. .................. Ireland - ... I,t,ai ly ..... . Japan 1' Luxembourg mv'r1' ..........-. . . ..................... 1 no data available '"il | ' : . . ............................................................................................-......... ;; i|!'ir-. .......... .... ' ,. ............ .................... :!j| (f: , ' i]l!j'i..i: ........... : - . . ' . ............ . ......... . . Netherlands . .. . . New Zealand Norway i ..........!'ii| i , defined .as hazardous waste and required to be delivered to an approved collector/recipient under the system for dealing with hazardous waste Portugal Spain Sweden ! '........................................... Switzerland Turkey ......... 1 Un't6d Kingdom i iN |, 1 ' ' t j, disposal limits for solid wastes jjno data available ` ' '' ................ !| 1 consignment and transport disposal requirements for lead-containing wastes : United States 1 , certain solid wastes containing lead listed as hazardous under RCRA; others are characteristic waste if leachate from: the waste contains lead in concentrations greater than 5 mg/I; hazardous wastes subject to strict handling and disposal requirements European Community '' ' ' Mexico . production or storage of lead-containing wastes requires permit; safety and labeling requirements must be met by ail handlers 111 If any substance that contains greater than 5-0 mg/I lead is classified as a hazardous |waste 241 DUP040006726 ENVjROMMEfT/kL SOURCES i .r i "*r . .I H* >BI1 Sweden w ** Swedish rood tolerance levels have recently been lowered to 0.3-0.5 mg/kg for most canned food, and to 0.02-0.5 mg/kg for various food stuff?, (higher values for spices etc.) Svii. eriand in foodstuffs are in the range 0.1-0.S mg/kg Turv--'1 .... . United States . !W " ;' " |:i!|i|S ' food, whenans)landatd.,te 0.2 mg/kg ^ jigfl (FDA interim guidance); calcium ^ 0.2 to 0.4 mgAg; other food additives. Euro]jean Gomnnunity | iff; maximum. lead Mexico >;! I 244 DUP040006727 F.MVIRONMENTAL SOURCES i. " ( t V ' hh Auslralia 4 ...uAiinil Austria maximum permissfate lead concentration varies by food type: beverages and other liquid foods 0.2 mg/kg; bran 2.5 mg/kg; fish in tinplaie containers - 2.5 mg/kg: fruit juices and fruit juice drinks 0.5 mg/kg; infants* foods in other than tinplate => 0.3 mg/kg; infants' foods in finplate containers * a mean level of 0.3 mg/kg in 10 samples with no one sample exceeding 0.8 mg/kg; meat in tinplate containers 2.5 mg/kg: milk, condensed milks and liquid mi!k products in tinplate containers 0.3 mg/kg; moiiuscs = 2.5 mg/kg; tomato products in tinplate containers ;. 2,5 mg/kg; vegetables 2.0 tng/kg; wheat germ * 2.5 mg/kg; ail other foods 1.S mg/kg; food additives not otherwise listed = 10 mg/Kg fe limits tor different food range between O.f arid 0.8 mg/kg, in most cases (e.g. iimits for wheat, IniliSlra!^^ 1'' ''1 rap Jrted, however. 11a ptenfis to adept relevant EC regulations. Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland . .Ireland .............. Italy ............ Japan ............... Luxembourg ' '- ; Netherlands New Zealand \.................... Norway Portugal Spain 0 ? prrp Ir i< j >i n-'-.r v*?, -:?r r.' -'`o v, it .iv' 'r'ner tri>n mineral water}; to ppm . `dptm: mrekQ.iSpr ifa'c'*- i rn-J ' '-'rlv.v-rL mi' -'r.- c-icnciurafed infant formula: 0 f ppm fon pcfom: 0.0t c'm wady-'vser* r.trni fonr il-'. i.C cpm icmato paste landfsauee; 0/> ppm t:>w)`oe?/.>J1 li-ted levet are tood toterarces) *r<-r,, "-.tot, o .'''jf'd. itir r.e: ir-.jrn rad iV,of'rr irt fr ! rod '-'rfc t1'-.: is 0.3 mgikg, in dnnks i| 0 S mg;Vo rnd i'. cr -.rr.-l fo-vj ' mql n Mr.1 irrum 'S'.nfr.t 10 mg/kg)! ihav been llproposed for several oilier foodstuffs v1!' ,. ' i-:1-1'-- ""M ; ,|V'v ' :. 1 1. .. ; '...........^ .i, fel! . i .' .................. .... , ... .... . - - - - - , i ill" .. ......... - ....... ... i Hyrfaximum ppprassi^ie toad concentration in: wine, 03 mg/I; beer, 0.2 mg/t; miik, 0.03 mg/I; -meat land eggs, 0 25 rng/kg; liver, 0.5 mg/kg; fish. 0.5 mg/kg; leaf/ vegetables, 0.8 mg/kg; tele, ji-'2--.G---m--a-/-k-g--;-f-r-u-i-t, 0.5...ma/ka; animal feed, 20-40mg/kg of dry matter. 'SI no data available JIHIKii' j ' ;' ':: :! ;!.: : . .sjftr. ,!*i:ii;.............. ... ........... 1 .... '' 'lifer .......... 1 ' ......... |, maximum lead content for plant products ranges from 1 to 5 mg/kg '.'I nj * ' ^ * 'I'iill .............. 1 maximum permissible proportions of lead in food products range from 0.2 to 10 parte per !(, '.million. 1 , ,11 new timlts for maximum permissible lead concentration in amma, feed will be 10 ppm tor straight 1 feedingstuff with fh exception of yeast, grain and phosphate which will be 5. 30 and 40 ppm respectively. In foodstuff intended for human consumption, is is suggested to implement tie following maximum tolerable levels; cow's milk and substitutes for human miik: 0.02 ppm Other products intended for infante and young children: 0.05 ppm soft drinks, including canned: 0.05 ppm "1 I fresh and frozen meat, fish and eggs; 0.05 ppm > | cereals, legumes, pulses and products thereof: 0.1 ppm j fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables; 0.3 ppm fresh and frozen leafy and brassies, vegetables: 0,3 ppm wines and fortified wines: 0.3 ppm liver and kidney from cattle and swine: 0.5 ppm if! .......................................................... 243 DUP040006728 PRODUCTS SAli^MMiBi^^piMillip^iiiiBiijiiiilB|iiiiStt^^te^ttM^i^^^ia^^^^^Mtlft^^^^^i 1 Portugal Spain Sweden i Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom Untied States European Community . Mexico ' | 1 ^ j "ift- bul ryimpounds are not used irt Sweden; as of July 1990, the Swedish paint prsd-JC'--- rqreed voluntarily to discontinue the use of lead chromate in paint; there is I 'r.'l on-going aiming at further voluntary agreements to limit tie use of lead in paint | the Ti'enor use of lead-containing paint is prohibited J [ no data available I t i nr, 'ti t' t oodation (who account for over 90% of the UK's production oi solvent jiiiim)nnea..3liwr|la|t3fer^yeip|ih|s jfu^j . ", i ,h' ' regtnning in July 1937; UK restricts lead carbonates1 and lead sulphates in paint ! rm'pt In- certain restoration purposes; lead in dry paint film on toys limited to 0.25% by 1 wm, th*- soluble lead content of a paint coating applied to a pencil, pen or brush is limited I :o C 0f.5"'i b*.r weight; paints and varnishes containing more than 0.15% lead must be I laV'itod ' :<i 5r"'71-' Ocor j !- nr Pr | 0 Ohio 9*fr`j C'-nmr'i'n 'rtf-e stand-rd lead m onnt at ||,i lead catbonates and lead sulphates may not be used in paints except for preservation j work \ the maximum permissible level of lead in surface paint (used to cover toys and school | 'articles) is 90 mg/kg; industries have agreed to eliminate the use of lead red oxide and lead basic carbonate from pigments, laquer, enamel, paint and varnish on toys, pencils, I colour pendls and other -school articles, printing: inks, cosmetics, furniture and paints: for | ''interiors; standards have been published which describe methods for determining lead concentrations in paints and pigments, as well as surface paints; in June 19S2 a technical 'icridard addressing the labelling cf paints that contain lead was published 246 DUP040006729 ==--r t .-.ij ? r*r-a^v,s^~:*"^KSiSi -- "-=== "=-.= `jLjr=s=iin. j _.!_: - =- = =. ==="=- . _ Australia Austria Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway the use of lead-based paint is prohibited on roofs used for collecting potable water, on furniture, on dwellings other than industrial installations, on factory premises used for food preparation, processing and producing of products intended for human consumption, and on toys; the manufacture of white lead-based paint, except for its application as mirror backing paint, has been prohibited since 1960c; lead content of household building paint is restricted to 0.25% non-volatile content; teed is < 1% of the non-volatile components, requires an appropriate warning on the labs! paints containing more Stan 0,15% lead must be property labelled; a ban is proposed for white -> < b<i!r<cua! tefcsFno is required on ail lead-based paints under Canada's Hazardous Products Act; f p=-ir,i' ,*r--j other liquid coatings intended tor consumer'use are currently limited to 0.5% by j weight, u-lrr the product is property labelled; lead is also iimited to 0.5% in coating materials j acp'icd to children's products such as furniture and toys as well as to pencils and artists' I brurlir-r; the Canadian Paint and Coatings Association (CFCA) has recommended that the Canadian p?>ri ndw to;s or 5 ir^wj ? jr:.,round' in ten-uro-v pavti tr> rfe rr.d of n?1 the use 01 while paint and lead sulphate has been prohibited in interior paints since 1929 (with cere ixce.-tinn1-); the use of lead carbonates and tead sulphate is prohibited as of January 1. 159j (( > >n; for restoration and maintenance of works of art and historical buildings) in February of 1988, the use of white lead in works was prohibited; since February 1993, there is a total ban on sales of paints containing while toad; paints containing more than 0.15 per , cent of lead in other forms have to be labelled; one criterion for attributing an eco-label to paint * is thzlt it1 is formulated without lead white lead1 compounds ("lead white") are banned from sate; lead-based anti-corrosive paint ('red i paint"), is being phased out and its use is restricted to'repait coatings; other lead-based " pigments (tead chromates and lead molybdates) are used as colouring agents for plastics, printer's ink and lacquer for surface painting; containers for paint with more than 0.15% lead content have to be labelled "Paint contains lead; not for objects which can be reached by small "ichildrsn'u no data available there is a voluntary ban by industry on the use of lead in paint intended for the domestic market; lead paint in toys, pencils and graphic instruments is restricted by federal statutes; labelling is, required when paints contain > 0.5% lead: no restrictions on the use of lead-based paint exist; hdwever, on a voluntary basis lead-based paints are not used for toys and household painting white tead and lead sulphate have been prohibited in paints for use on the inside of buildings and vessels since 1939; lead-based zinc white in paints is also prohibited; as directed by the EC, the,use 0! tead carbonate and tead sulphate in paint, except for use in preservation, will be prohibited maximum permissible amount of tead in paint is 5000 mg/kg; the level will be reduced to 2500 mg/kg in the proposed fourth amendment of the regulations which are anticipated to be promulgated in June 1993; current regulations also specify that no person Shall manufacture, import, supply, sell or use any paint, distemper, powder coating, pigment or anti-fouling composition1 that contains basic lead carbonate, which is also known as white lead white lead, lead sulphate and tead carbonate nave been prohibited in paints for use on the inside of buildings since 1929. Exception for these is use for preservation; containers, with paint containing lead shall carry the (fallowing labelling; "Contains tead wnich may cause poisoning. Mot to be used on objects which may be chewed or sucked by children," 245 DUP040006730 |i|[ipfBiiMfiiiiilMlfffillijiilgiilia^a Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico unleaded petrol must not contain more than 0.C13 g/l" of lead; leaded petrol must not contain more than 0.15 g/l of lead; tax on leaded gas as of 7/91; proposal being mnsids-ed tc rpyre tnde rpotrrencnff *or gpso'inr .-id autos; recently the Swedish Environment Protect^-. /icncy m ' report *o ihe Cr, 'crn-ri0'.* has proposed banning msnu'acture at impel of |f.~r>c. o-tn'irc-from July 1. uniraded petrol: o 013 c/i; kv;H prim- 150 r --a/.: n'r^sfi petrol: 560 mg/i; heating fij"1, F:rfrr '.eieht: 1 mo Vo: hr.:frg fuel, Milk-11 6 mc/W ; he mg fuel, Schwer: 5 mg/kg / : no dataavailabie . maximum concentration of lead in petrol is limited to 0.15 g/l;^ unleaded petrol is defined as having a maximum lead concentration of 0.013 g/l ; beginning in 1990, ali ,^new vehicles must be capable of running on unleaded gasoline 1 in 1P56 the FPA s~t the maximum allowable concentration of lead in leaded gasoline it in 0.0?fi n/i: in adcitfon, ali new automobiles are required to operate on unleaded | gr-scl'n* MC38); maximum lead content ot unleaded gas 0.01 g/I. fl !a-c n I'-adeH fktrol is limited to 0.15 g/i; unleaded petrol defined as having no 1 greater t! lan 0.013 g/i of lead jH in lOdO an unleaded gasoline with the same specifications as the most frequently k! puichaced US nr-r was introduced; as of 1992, the lead concentration in regular tj qecl re vac 'cyejed to 0.4 g/l; in 1988, the automobile industry was committed by 1 'ha pm.'crr.ni^T* m introduce catalytic converters on new models it is generally accepted internationally thai unleaded gasoline is defined as containing less than 0.013 g Pb/I. 248 DUP040006731 | Australia Auslria : Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands :l New Zealand i Norway Portugal : Spain &lffiiiiiliMiMll(ltillMlMllRllilM^ PRODUCTS concentrations of lead in leaded gas varies from 0.3 g/f in some city areas to 0.84 g/l in country areas; unleaded gas limited to 0.013 g/l*; all cars manufactured or imported afte- January 1,1986 are required to use unleaded gasoline 'r-ad content cf gasoline must not exceed 0.013 g/l* as of August 1,1993 (production}. I md Novmber 1,1993 (consumption) l n-r/'muir sl'cv'-tble concentration of lead in gasoline 0.15 g/i rmrimum no intration of lead in gasoline used in engines that require a srrtali i rrvjn* of loro to avoid premature failure (i.e. those used in farming, marine and rommerc c1 trensportatidn equipment), 0.026 g/i (quarterly average) and 0.030 g/i er'j'imumj; or soline used for aii other purposes is .limited to 0.005 g/i (extract, C''i,,d Gs'ei'e, Part 1, 7/15/89); the use of leaded gasoline .was phased out in December 199') 1 i mrxirnn t . oo'-'V'ntration of lead in gasoline is 0.013 g/l* (unleaded) and 0.15 g/l uf rdedi. f, v.' tax on leaded gasoline | | nr-imum sl'twable concentration of lead in gasoline is 0.15 g/f 1 ma-muri ir-'-d concentration in petrol, as of June 1991, is 0.15 g/l; In an effort to 1 ncrc-iE'-nS `nr use of lead-free petrol, its tax has been partially reduced since July of '939 ! FVimuir, cs^n-intration of lead in leaded gasoline 0.15 g/i; unleaded 0.013 g/f; tax j . or'Maqr s V.r lead-free gas and cars that run on lead-free gas j | ns mi'Tn allowable concentration of lead in gasoline, 0.40 g/l; In Athens, 0.15 g/l | j no data mailable ! j ms imuT level of lead in petroleum products is 0.15 g/I 1 maximum e|!n- able lead concentration in gasoline 0.15 g/t (May 1982) l> ad ccnrricund's are not used in gasoline; the Japanese Industrial Standards limit the l=ac content in petroleum j j ii'S'.-iurr slloMble concentration of lead in leaded gasoline, 0.15 g/l; unleaded, | 0 013 g'l j | mnnnvm allowable concentration of lead in leaded .gasoline, 0.15 g/l; since 1986 | J tie rr" boon an extra tax on leaded gasoline i |, * . .................. .......... ........ .. " ............. j | 'r11oct'. the maximum permissible level of lead contamination in unleaded petrol was 1 jr-dired from 0.05 g/l to 0.013 g/i'; in 1986, the maximum permissible level of lead in 'tedeo nr -o'lne was 0.84 g/i - this levei was reduced significantly to 0.46 gfl; a target n?fo to' I'lim'n.'tion of lead in petrol has been set as January 1996 if ms in lim'tad to 0.013 g/I for unleaded and 0.15 g/l for leaded; there is also an r~ virunmertEi 'ax depending on the lead content ms; ;rrum allow able concentration of lead in leaded gasoline, 0.40 g/l; ..since January j VJy, j r.i'uirum al'nwdble concentration of lead in leaded gasoline, 0,40 g/l as of 1986 247 DUP040006732 PRODUCTS | ty'jwv'*1* ' 1 Switzerland ^ Turkey United Kii igdnm United States | European Community 1 "....... m ^' " nuwwn. "sw *$ V:^!^^v;!|!j^'!it;[:! '!^j;1 '!'" !i|ir':N'!i]; -f1 ij 'X?TM ^'!'i:!'f1' ' ' ' ' ::|'l:,;v ' l, `|!'Vj!;'. ' fr . '.% Vi: ,!' ,. ,.. . , lead batteries are considered hazarded waste and must be collected separately; many of the lead accumulators and batteries are recycled ; no data available , . tri*t =- are ne repu'ations governing the disposal of load batteries; however it is believed that rwariy 1007- of le|^'b!|lS||ffi||f||ijm; \:: recycled: miiijTsHic|S^ lit elsrtrelvia if cairisd tio-f o- - nd &rr -port-' ten cf sevo ferneries are not federally regulated below the smelter !,- ,r < r .r,,"`w .-i't tnc port lic-^er, 3fi stabs have enacted batter/ recycling 1--a> Iritioii tiirt f-T'tij'-e'r tre^-m nr es-posit requirements; also 4 states have enacted state ! laws fconni'-o th' d'spovl rf tattenv in municipal solid waste landfills i ... |11 propMl to corilrnl dispose]'ef aM OTCourage recycIlng ortead-ecW batteitesi | 1 .' .-HI /'" 250 UP040006733 Australia Au-fu Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany Greece i Iceland; Ireland Italy Japan 1 Luxembourg ! Netherlands New Zealand ; Norway Portugal Spain Sweden PRODUCTS there are no regulations governing the disposal of lead batteries; however, the safe loading of vehicles with scrap lead acid batteries is strictly policed by State and Territory laws; up to 80% recycled n rsrulc rrnr qc.'erp "ha *:o'-aqp sin trar.'p<-t'hon of bc,J fr.d 1 ncfepfed ED r= gyntion oftransfrontv','k!Bm,-t" rf taw'! 1 cn'rr-jpci b" regnal and munidpni auficYis-- re-; r~ "e'rrn law; yi 1 aP ^ ad-a'-`d b-~"'ries, if they arc *3'='! nh . "id, a-*: clrs'Vrad < * coii-:,'f hazardous-wastes , nn*l tn<?:r f-.-n^p'-fation and storr'np ru*. rvm'-tcd, n'N -c' m-p P"r' d-an'd scrap lead- 1 ?r~j fr-itrr*' p'r nnt regulated Wee r-ul -fei by pr.v'.n''--;; in Bni-h Co1! imbia; a Ji t--1" ' -tet-n ipnr'Ne programm--- h-' '.*rr. rp to h*-lr, pr.o-i'-.-o'L fr.cyOng: the size of . | i r ri r " xi on how fer o p" f-n'otK!'--*;1 tn t;,'r.^P1-rt u'od baft-=7 processor; the I inc-nt1-'*.. srocijr,'.: are paid in addition to the, scrap value of.a used batts.y delivered it a I processor 1 1 w f-'i I'xd b- ferns are classified as hazardous waste; regulations on labelling and collection 1 of taid-cqrtFirrng batteries are under preparation | i.vormct^n campaign to increase battery recycling 1 two differer.' protocols for battery, collection are currently under development to discourage 8 <-'is-.-v-a1 o* tvf-" es with household waste and encourage recycling and improved 1 tr.3r'.norte:,o,i-Icr.d battery dispofeaf is regulated under a *976 law : i ^'jifci'ov, ge'eming the transportation of lead-acid batteries; the recycling rate for batteries !"-estimated to b" above 95% ' iJlp7 ..'iil' lj'"' r1' >i ............ ............ ' " ......"" " ' " ! > n: dat i a 'a'labie there are no regulations in force governing the disposal of lead batteries; however, many catteries :are melted down to recover the lead ! fi 1 lihe colection. iabelling, classification and storage of iead-acid batteries are not regulated, but n. market incentives are used along different points of sale (i.e. primary and secondary producers) to promote collection end recycling i ,on!y one type of lead battery (an accumulator) contains lead; all of these batteries are recycled to recover the lead without incentives ! ! required to be labelled when the lead content is 0.4% or more by weight; retailers who sell batteries or accumulators that are required to be labelled are under obligation to accept a i.comparable type of battery in return; each municipality is responsible for establishing a ' .system for collecting returned batteries and accumulators. i , ' used lead batteries are classified as hazardous waste and the local authorities are jresponsible for their collection, transportation of used batteries is also regulated; a tax is ' 'levied on batteries (paid for by producers and importers), to subsidize disposal/recyding Jjefforts; If the environmental charges alone cannot sustain a collection rate of 95%, the i|jSwedish ERA has also proposed supplementing the system by setting up a returnable iieposil on new batteries 1 249 DUP040006734 WPPBPWPWM Mjljjljliij|ii^ Australia ; - ................................. . - Austria Belgium Canada .....'.jijjji1 :!li|lji:!;|.:i!-.: . '' ' ' ' l.|l|j; Denmark i maximum permissible quantity of lead in shotgun cartridges 28.5 g; hunting with jrleadshot is restricted: in certain wetland areas: . y; Finland : Francei j C|f!ft|ny ; replacement of lead in ammunition (small shot and bullets) is under development !i Greece - Iceland no data available i Ireland i ,ia|y, ; ili is' Japan' i Luxembourg Netherlands NewZealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico' |' ; i as of 1986, guidelines exist for pigeon shooting to prevent soil contamination by lead; research is currently underway to find alternatives for lead in sea and freshwater fishing; the Netherlands hopes to ban lead-containing "hailstones" (12 caliber rifles) by 1994 i ban on lead shot for roost birds in wetlands; voluntary reduction in other uses of lead shot; by the year 2000, lead cartridges shall account for only 10 per cent of , total cartridge consumption r- ' ' ........................... since 1991 a voluntary reduction, stimulated by information and educational campaigns, is being attempted; the goal is to shift to lead-free alternatives by the beginning of the 21st century; unless significant results can be for seen, bans may be considered in the near future , no data available l a Joint campaign between the Lead Development Association aid angling groups | has ted to a phase-out of lead weights in fishing j ! | limit on lead content of shotgun cartridges S| .......................................................... A 252 DUP04000673S }> 'T * * PRODUCTS Australia Austria : i Belgium pesticides remaining lead compounds were banned on August 1,1992, but allowed to m-maio on t! .o market until December 1992 If cd cotTCfjnh prohibited for use in agriculture before 1970 Canada Denmark s Finlfind France ' Germany ' ||| 'iTif-Hj1!': 'i!'" Greece - > j application of lead compounds is strictly prohibited ............'^fi rp' ............. ....... '" t\ ........... Iceland ' Ireland j, : Italy ' ' Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand j no data available ' mi , j ' t J'' - " ' ' ' ' i.1 !|!l f- ij ilii. . . . ........................ .... ............... -' '' '' -. i i! . ! : 1 Norway s Portugal Spain Sweden no regulations ill!: i i i, 1|j Switzerland Turkey United K-ngdOm no data available ili United States , in Mafch 1989 the EPA issued data call-in notices Ip the product managers of 13 pesticide products that contained lead as an inert ingredient; as a result, 11 of the 1 pesticides were cancelled and 2 were reformulated without lead. European Community : committee has been established to set permissible levels for heavy metals in , agricultural chemicals; no standards issued to date .ilMexico '1 251 DUP040006736 PRODUCES ' Australia iin,: ......................... Austria pencils, toys, linger colours, ncwcara colours, pastels, crayons, poster paints, and coloured chalks should not hawe a iota1 |??-i content or'etar than 0.01%: coating materials should not contain prpalfr then 055"/-. cf lead cr Irorf snrrpour.de: n Que<=ns,ond th= use el any '..jil combusto^ nr'ie'1?' ftp' r nr oontat'ic f'"1! having r lord coot ="1 xc=-mrig 0 f.2% by weight i no lead in chain saw oils Belgium i! i Canada ... r ; Denmark ky ' :!j/: 'ij.j; Finland f| ||thi!:artSi:;;Cffa.tesi.'OncS.;;hotofej|r ipsmmuniti^S'hav;feeni . - to ! ' Ij fn-edyction,n'ttehazard " ' ' 1'" ''' : :ii''... ^ |ii .Pr^BCf' Germany :s Greece T ,ija departmental order of the health ministry, dated November 1978, prohibited the use of lead IfsaltE in imilalion peate .in jewelry . si Insignificant quantities of lead are still used in the following applications: stabilizers (or PYC, cable | sheathing, optical and technical g'ass, TV picture tubes, and crystal glass; the lead in these japplications is considered immobile and fixed in an insoluble matrix 1 ':T.........' ........' ........................ ....... ' ' ............ ; : Iceland Mi' : ; Ireland Italy ! Japan 1 Luxembourg '! ' ' Netherlands i ' no data available If 1 i. 1 i . I. _. ..... . .. \ . :............... ...................................................................................................... .. New Zealand 1 ............. Norway Portugal Spain Sweden i lit is prohibited to manufacture, import, pack or sell material used for writing, drawing, marking or flpainting that contains more than 100 .mg/kg of lead; maximum permissible amount of ieadlis |50CO mg/kg in coating materials for toys; this level will be reduced to 2500 mg/kg in the Fourth i..! , |Amendment of the Toxic Substances Regulations 1983; accessible plastic materia) on a toy is (restrictedto a maximum permissible amount of 250 mg lead/kg 'I/ 1 products containing more than 1 per cent lead will be classified as causing birth defects and !j, jreduoed fertility; products containing more than 1 per ceM of lead chromate and 0.1 per cent of ilead phosphate are classified as carcinogenic; migration of lead from toys shall not exceed SO i' jmgAtg toys; cosmetics shall not contain lead ;|; i 1 ' `' ' ............ ............. If ' - "I proposals to eliminate lead sheathing gables and lead plastic additives end to support researchiott lead-free .crystal 'have been issued; there is currently a voluntary agreement not 1 to use underground lead sheath cables after 1894, and not to use lead in semi-crystal after , 1981; today no glassworks use lead for semi-orystaf; miscellaneous uses are being investigated i to form a basis for discussion with industry on voluntary measures Switzerland ,i use of lead in clothing dyes is prohibited Turkey United Kingdom no data available il i ; ' 1 ' 1 . 1 1 1 : : 1: UK is formulating regulations to gontrol supply and use of lead solders (>9.1 % Pb) end ' plumbing equipment United States f .............................. ,,J . .. .254 DUP040006737 IpiiW FftODfJCTS Australia teaching of lead from ustensils limited to 02. mg/I; lead from glazed ceramics limited by standards for overall teaching of metals; there are no regulations governing the amount of lead used in solder for food cans ; Austria the use of lead or lead aHoys for tableware was prohibited in I960; exempted are lead-tin alloys with a maximum lead content of 10% Belgium Canada | t oV ~t`. jv-io'r allowed only on the outnlde of food cans; leachate from ceramic ustensils is | inrulcdtr. 7 ngri i Finland Denmark nv nm tm concentrations have been set for lead teaching from ceramic ware that wiil come into Ci. I.3CI V' th foodstuffs l i France 1 , Germany , '--sc. j o rf- y is permitted only on the outside of cans; the penetration of the leaded alloy inside 1 I1-*- not itr r, -r should occur only accidentally and may not result from the method of production to1' - n e.-'rd" have been set for lead in ceramic ustensils; refiltebte objects; <5.0 mg/1; cooking nd cto-age -istensils with a minimum capacity of 3 L: 1,5 mg/I; refillable land non-refiltable o' pov vfh r maximum inside depth of less than or equal to 25 an: 0.8 mg/rim8. 1 there r no longer any use of soldered cans for food packaging 1 Greece Iceland Ireland Italy :io data available 9- | ' Japan ..........................' Luxembourg " Netherlands ; ! i' "III [1 ; '' ' ! ' 1 lead solder is only allowed on the outside of food packaging unless the uppermost layer contains : 1 less than 0.05% lead; the lead content of ceramic food ustensils Is limited to: 0.8 mg/sq dm; lor packaging, barrels and ustensils: volume greater than 3 litres 1.5 mg/1 and less than 3 litres 4 mg/I New Zealand Norway " hollow vessels shall not liberate more than 2 mg/I of lead; flat articles shat! not liberate mote than 1 mg/sq dm of lead i Portugal 'Spain !! ' ' -Sweden >1 1 1 {1 ' ; ' " ' '' :.................... ' ' " .. ) .............................. 1 ! Swedish food tolerance levels have recently been lowered to 0.3-0,5 mg/kg for most canned 1 j food; Sweden wishes to eliminate imported toad soldered cans [virtually fl cans manufactured in Sweden are weidsd) and subject canned foods to the same standards as fresh foods i! Switzerland 8 ji Turkey Ji ' |j! United Kingdom ll I no data available ' ' ' W` "......... 1 ............................................................ !l United States ! in March 1989 the EPA issued data call-in notices to the product managers of 13 pesticide 1 products that contained fears as an 11 cancelled and 2 were reformulated inert ingredient; without iead as a result, 11 ot the pesticides were j j European Cornrr.tii!ty 1 Mexic.b '----- .......... . 1 ..... . " committee has been established to set permissible levels for heavy metals in agricultural chemicals; no standards issued to date j 1I 253 DUP040006738 'TT'^ *i ' * Australia Austria Belgium Canada Finland Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland ' Ireland Italy Japan ENViPONPFNTAl HEALTH "ma < " - I the National Occupational Heoflh and Safety Cormirsion (NOHSC) recommends a maximum eltoiveb'e sir concentration of ftsd in ftp rorlsjKv of 0 1 mgftrr fti'r."-wei'ihftd avepqe ova: P hojry, n icp-j, ftp f-lor-l ^ --fti on-1 Pp-e-rch Coun-ii fNHf'FCi TOf-mT'iided cn c'C'-rtiO'-pl nrjpwrnbi-' i ft--1' * pf ~0 ft-/di ft' n.-ft- ?rd *C ft'f~n-ft". ift"=.rr if - ru-ftlinp- v'>'l --i" ` - "i ol <r ciftro o` tfN tmt *' rw.i"-"lor =i |'o"j*h ?r-i pp*> r- Crit it t *'<- v.'- pr./o-'-'f 't-M'1-' 1 *> Au'-lr-k-n ft id rdtir,iy {'ISO' r-'/,Tri'''n'i id - nr'mum v j k ... V i1 b'-d ft-- ft o'7fi,p/`J ft'mi''.s aiio ft-[in'd'ftr ftm-ft -nd m 1"ra-roirr'.^'d. 7i' a>. .n r` F* pn'dl kr liiai^' the /ur,r?ll"n ftso i"'.s'r' tu'i .=r ' r- oirninr1- conor rlmt-c-,' " <n Hoi-----1 ivftch p~iu o i ic oc'.*T'",`rn?( p cc-..'r- rr < occur l`>~ d o 1' `rr nn fr io 1 VPi- ir-i (ft* rr""i v - H- e-r nm-ano t`--IV n TP'riin / m-vcn.-id- 70 p-ft 1i' m-- f >i w j i ftr rn--i. yiyr, 1-',,ir Fi""' li' nonr-Kmo or pg'dl for prr <*0 l ' d fri v--rr''", ''i,-"i'ftnd Gc-*- ri Pr-rv- re "ir/1 p d! ftr m-r -T jr''1 'or TMorr-ri. V,rri - i='i ' mu . -I' t * no ; in' 'rtrrftpir-'r -y rv l Vo-ft p fti-irci - 10 roll i'p ircr;,-11, '"c, u o. / r-,r Tn:-" v rr-ft' u^ocr i* TM - l ftnis'e- rn 1 -d w-v* wi 1 ' m-i'd ft ro f'rrv-'-'' ri ftrd ' i. ?r>uft Aj'lra>i- tft ;~ii*b *v ftp [."noir rccor uorr' d n rp ft- i r o" 1C fr.d no ! iraftc *v ftro w j I "Ti rwo -'ll' `iy>r - r ro-i--io'r-lor cf >'~d r It.' v mlo 10 fto ft? * ir r.i-n f--ii r of tno/m3 i r J'lfi-rn fir " ! isd - t'-'1 o-"r "5 It v . r- rriv cl''" 'L ft i1 ftar. r.--ir-'ni'^lnn in ihr r"r oft;- 1 |.;r ft-r: r`J in ! n'?0 0" ir,V ''rrouC'uo^rn r ur.n' "V rV, pjrc'aft css iphilir Vi nlcori EA H it "Tn ft, ,llc,,'t :ft r r '"irron-i n r f Ir 'ri in ft.TM v >rkp|cc" r 1" me'ft- ft m"""; al >po a'.erape n i/p ' hui . n ii rr ft^Fift '\ni ad u o'-cr'" ir 1 j n< 1C"11' *nrt 7inc | w--i'-oor.i "ii i -I1 ' 1 r 'Th '/[ v urr) if' u q H ir tin- nr >~~j i q/J e'ln '1 f n,S/ mur.i-1 .ft ar ror-pnl'-'m'! of ld in the 'od n-; r 0 ft mi m'iit i rnh'pl 1 = ri r. r vr i'.r)-r I'c'fti'/r'ii'in on nn iri ilj'-,,r-` > :rlr`-ir p Ji'/rrr -! he ir-Ap'a'i ' 7J pc d n r rll/cuftpiPd i f '-ir - 1 1rr:on 'fftpb' o-n *-inr ir- ot'-rdin i-n- - - - 0 10 ro-'rr ftTi* J f a rrr -1 to r,) In'ms inrur cl - 'bft ftp-1 c'ncr,Tr-,i--i ' ft" jft-r1 '.f r p'-pq workers I i ro |jn q | iii1 ,|r'r -r-.V'H'ir.'-rr kupd il t pr il l i riM* > '| j i ft fp^f wher^ heis 1 e/ooind Ic ftrOj 1 r-.- imnm pl;*-f-ip-ft rrn'Fn'rp ftn of ft d ir th "p-ft'-oio- -i ' j m 'tir- v' o rr 1 - ire) mirirnim rl .'A1' Ho;'.' Ir.1 rwiv|i->, r vr|n|fce r pef 1! 'ciiidc irn; --. , in Jtn r / s - Ir m r-ncr. itr-t nn in "r u-r-l n pro n ir ma i-- fur - i- mice oi-.rf je c - roti-ij-"' iftrci nr Lftt-d ftoo *. o j-vd ir crs- < ho,'""r Hr Tnr rl 'do-'* e ! -r -, | i "i iv 'ft i l-'d ft_d ern- nlrriici n`h" rrl '.ft-r r<'' j 3 al i'"`r p/o c ,-lions to j 30 |i'i'ii) /'.A in urii p limftd to Z0 mg/I n -'117-'m r1' istft -iir ft "1 con-e-trol nn in thr vn. ! n`-rp 10 rnc/rr' um- onicft p'<?re>ie o1 f p- i" 1 Ti-'1-1U1 1 .il'oi'Pc.l:l r to'n tor 0 cor crqir-l or in'rr '00oft;- 73 u-'-' 'm-r, and vnii n<i r 7r rnd SO ur/'-'l iw -n undr ^oi, A. A in it ii ' loim/On - rnd '"'.iii=n cur45), t ;r-m' {women unw ^5) r- xin n-f 1-*?bft 1 fted "Pd rrncrnlr?tnn r the "or1 nftc.'7P h '/c , wi'h 'irp'li'n' 110 SO h i '| , *-- 'r|>' in- rrr,-J r 1 ft' ! = ' .A i i - Z"i n - q rr'di'i ri-.:-r .nirpcpn in* 30 uQ/n Iftniiq'o'i n or Ai-AiD t"M> 6 Eurotean un ts | no deli p.JEiie,:i`' "* 'mum at ?bte air, lead concentration in the workplace 0.15 mg/ms (time-weignted average r he -r \ inn (imufn allowable blood lead concentration in the workplace 80 pg/di frecori.r.Endriiio'','. 01 . ,r'i,''r rii-.'ianif- .-inlead concentration in the workplace 0.15 mg/m3 (time-weighted average t> 0 Ir-"'", m- ximum aliowable blood lead concentration in the workplace 70 pg/dl (Code of J....P..r.c..C..'.iC...P.!........................ . .................................. ' '_________ ---- ------ oay.-.iiir., r|lo-*'sc e air concentration of lead in the workplace 0.10 mg/cu m; maximum allowable `-'i'-"- 'pec -r ocr rtration in the .workplace 60 jig/di 256 DUP040006739 PRODUCTS? European Community Mexico 'Vtn'wfv ` * iiT'wva1 w:^T" H;1~~;fVt.;1 " .* * -V---V,;^' ^irij-*jjflJTll 'T* ijjDjw^^T ^--**i 4* 1f labelling and packaging requirements exist for all goods containing more than 0.1% lead by weight; lead banned from use in cosnrrtbr: prooosel thrt bioevaiiabillty resulting from the use of toys shnJ! r.of excoH 0.7 u ,t p^inrrl to conf'oi used oil disposn! the Health P<";p*iry to1'- f-irti|i-r.-q rn O'-Wlrn p'lw.irrnc designed to promote awareness of alternative methods of ieducing lead exposure 255 DUP040006740 nHVJRONMENTAL HEALTH Australia level of concern is 25 pg/di, under review in1992/1993 Austria *l ,i Belgium liS: IrlliP - " ": f '"!-':O';!}! : . ... ;= : .. .'. ; , 'J ]3.. - . ^ n. action level set rtf 25 pg/a. under review as of 1989 ............. . .............. " ' !'T ` the Ministries of Health, Environment, and Housing are financing s series ot studies aimed at iiietttifylriig rsk faffiio.rs-in domestic housing in .the Paris urban avsa. and dstsimining the 1 magnitude and extent of the lead poisoning problem in the country; a national programme ,i aimed at the reduction of sources is underway Germany -in mean blood lead levels have been found to be decreasing for a group of school children aged , 6 to 12 in Berlin over the period from 1976 to 1985 Greece Iceland 1 | no data available Ireland : Italy:' c 'ill'- Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway 1 |}!i | : ,|ij1 "| Spain .Sweden Switzerland Turkey no data available | United Kingdom j United -States j 1982 government advice suggests that .actions should be taken if biood lead exceeds 25 pg/dl | 10-14 pg/dl, community-wide educational, nutritional and environmental intervention; i 15-19 pg/dl, educational and nutritional interventions; 20-44 pg/dl, medical evaluafidn, 1 | European Community environmental investigation and remediation; 45 pg/dl and higher requires medical intervenlion ' ! - \: ' ' ` ........... 3 considering lowering the action level to 10 or 15 pg/dl .1 Mexico ........................| j ' ' 258 DUP040006741 EtfViRONr'CNTAl. HE/5CTH Luxembourg Netherlands New, Zealand Norway Portugal Spam Sweden maximum allowable blood lead concentration in the workplace is 70 gg/di, with exceptions up to SO gg/dt if the following conditions apply: the ALAU < 20 mg/g creatinine, ZPP (zinc protoporolryrinj n go/j h'~7r:lotin1 or A.'.AO !--/ef vfi Eurocean unir- rrvirvim r,"Ttv-i'1' ft I"'," r'nv -i'rrt"r n the n**-]rs': v * C 15 m-'m3 ftm-'-weightsd average f<~r tr, | our, |p in - rd 'X h 10 n - i~rr ' i-i; it ,- muv. m. r"' '.I Ij Io c . 1 V ad concentration in t:"-p woriD1-'1*' fo ufl'd1, nloo-J (eid pOon ?n ~nd "-0 gg-'ol r<-rl--i tr*r EsT',',,f Sl'i-d" N" tvii-id f.?r ad'pl`H p /-lu<> of 0 IS rv^rf for sir r-'ec'p-ii I!' I t ~ t r i'll*" ' rir l-"'r,v nl*'ti"" i !lv ,cri'f|ao'. i~ rt.(jr mn/r'"line* K.li'rJ, -ii ir" nil" '**' >' 1 i ' >o--r.nr-n,. <-i i ti r rl r,'*f gw. h'liwnr, It is p|err*'Jl tv.*i It I'm.i; !' u* fn ""rs-t ir- trl- e-rount lo- l'r< Ir e'r wlu<' aBggjjliMBgHjliM'jr d-i-.-y- ir I' I Mno1 nL ti i r , w v'rrl-ni v-p r n -s rr.wT". !<= 1 ir/r.wn I i 1 r | n 4 1 rl r- (IP ! ill i. ri iV I--" j! Mr c d I * I /' !e> i| ; ?0i cr-d i'i g<i.al (if /LA < in, n- mum nl' I-1 - tv .H r.ni'M'ai -n r 'Ir wr1 rr_ m' 'tn-.l, fee; 0 0" mnlrr 'r-r.-rr1'1'i -i ~f-' eiM-.-: n rr t-r i --ii rf-. rrii>nijm -MifJjt- hl.'o V id Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States European Community Mexico "vr =>J,e, I'l-1- i'l" rijrnr."i" . 1ir < iv- r f Mur.; `c. i enr c'-..i.. .rid- -,rv .i^ /I r- i 'ii ,i id. a,idffl.075 mj'D'r (' t-r-r^iii/i ir-j :r|r'Pi`r I ler.-i rr'"iiiTj'n r i|r fckod lend unouiiiration is 30 ga/ci: *cr women ana 70 uq'dl fcr rr-n no data aveilanl* r - TIIini f !I<>.*; Me ! r..n .r,l alien e,f |er<J m tV '. C'i nl'im5 r 0 IE moW Iti''..-- 'Sighted 0 r --v- i-r nr , fir n't *:v ti-- tri.m ir'i'i f.ic -edcur.'.~nii iiiii in'V* "O'<- '~v i' 70 ijn'.; w.|ij, c .-r W- tip to so uol i1 if th folh"'inc cor.dii'or.: ar; Iv 'he ALAU - 2,, rui-'a cr'antin'. /_pr -nr* nil j|n'ph/r,ni < g@,'g liemeilotiin, cr r| / > F European l I L I >ad lin'i is ``0 Lto/dl tir 'Jine.Ml mdiri- `h. > o-, irnij-i f-ilowe *:e air ce.r.'anirat.oe of `end t 'he v rii'rfnn (the S-<-ir.'' jle c'iiz11.- li.t l), vh . I 'xtr.'ifg.ii n ,S7f. and 'us j.:d't-'*-i in 1?y,, is 50 ii'i't'-, :t ~.'e'r -i --p-. w-| t-|r.' d Ir td mroeirprsi!-,- m ;po >we.rirciir(;e, which b? t -s,t k= effective 1 -"'j E0 i>; T fe' r. c.ff'1'cut. 'e e,h-el c an'1 6'1 linin' 'rr any ene c!n=c> to' th*- ocnstruction me. -ir1 'he Pri'f. - + i.i-m; |.= ,_-)g |ia/rr- "i!h nc furtn' nro ic" ir to'11'omonitoring it e 'I rer - i ij " r'< i-non`e. po gi'm* for coR'truc'ion i-Hurlry, additional e nr i' -ir f -l 11 li~'J f C' lJ' - 11* erne v| ne'uslrv e .ps"*l to lead from i"! i'u K'ri-" n r ~inai.i i n'-jTi n fnr. `he *sn sui : nd reqj.r=- PTiile.yp"- te provide nygiene `v " ,e r,"' v'recr ! .'n wn *h"t 'he . ..-kr,s !y nr.err.-ierc are r.o. sL-ae.i to secondary e>D0.-ur3 to lead f1 "r h i ' il'/-tli t'r Ic-.n cc,rir,Fr.'reiiot T, tnr w l Low.iie e.fo 15 nv;/TiJ (fnv'-wenh'ed '1 ,".-rrrr .tv . . ,i '-'iiiii i|i'i"'et.l' l-.'t . lead c'nii.i'rei.or, ir 1'i-v 'r~OTiis 70 I vJif `Ih 11 ,r ur >' p- i ,f *|y t-ji'iwr. ,n dJ 'n, -Dfly 'ne /LAU e ?0 rr.o/g r. - ririr e- y- f t |pC rr-|r-,f .pi jj'/i ncr.'ilrbin, i, t-.tL level i S Eme.pean units t~./r `i. pin'i-sfile 'md ecn-e-i p'rn ,n eir in tie worrolace. 150 g'r--.3 nov"itr, the.level 257 DUP040006742